essay on wastage of water

Water Shortage’ Major Causes and Implication Cause and Effect Essay

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Introduction

It’s no doubt that the world is facing a topic of water crisis which has gone out of control and therefore raising a lot of concerns from the leaders and international organization who are trying to come up with ideas of solving this problem (Oxfam.org.uk, 2011).

However, the root cause of this problem is upon the human race that is entirely to blame for the ever increasing water crisis due poor and undeveloped policies governing protection of such water one of the most precious natural resource. In this regard the following discussion will elaborate on the major causes and implication of water shortage in the planet today.

First, both industrial and domestic water pollution is one of the major causes of water shortage because as more water is polluted the more water is wasted (Oxfam.org.uk, 2011).

Due to lack of proper technology available for recycling and purifying such polluted water in many countries across the world, issues of water pollution have become so prevalent and therefore contributing to high percentage of water wastage.

Secondly, water shortage has also been attributed to the high population growth causing a serious competition for this resource (Jones, 2010). The world population is increasing at an alarming rate and consequently straining the supply of this natural resource and hence resulting to severe scarcity of such water due to it’s over use.

Additionally, poor management of the water catchment areas is also another cause of water shortage (Oxfam.org.uk, 2011).

Majorly, when water catchment areas are destroyed through deforestation among many other ways, water is also likely to decrease due to destruction rocks and water table hence resulting to low water generation from the surface of earth (Oxfam.org.uk, 2011).

On the other hand, due to the fact that water has become a scarce resource, consequently this has possible implications to the humanity and animal kingdom as well.

To the humanity, one of the major implications is that, water scarcity may possibly cause a disagreement of ideas in the planet due to conflict of interest among different countries who would want to have the natural resource for them selves.

Additionally, issues of water shortage may also probably cause division of classes when people will want to own water privately and this will create a class of water have and have-nots (Jones, 2010).

Summary of the article

This article is a discussion regarding one major problem that is an issue of concern in the 21 st century which according to the author, the world is currently facing a major crisis- the scarcity of water one of the most useful natural resource.

The argument is that, in the 20 th century the world was having a crisis in dealing with issues such as political ideologies among others, but now the current crisis is much worse and it might be one the major causes of conflict in the planet today (Jones, 2010).

The author describes the intensity to how much water as natural resource has become so scarce especially the fresh water which is essential for domestic consumption, in fact, the most shocking news is that, according to author’s report, fresh water currently contributes only about “2.5 percent of the planet’s entire water supply” and therefore, such supply of water can not meet the actual demand for water worldwide since the world’s population is also increasing at an alarming rate and consequently causing an increasing in water demand at least by double the original water necessity (Jones, 2010).

For this reason, then it is reasonably clear that the current trends of this particular natural resource can not sustain the world population; meaning that those sectors that fully depend on water such as agriculture and manufacturing industries may also not be able to function fully (Jones, 2010).

As a result of all these issues, then the ever rising water shortage crisis might be a cause of conflict in the world due to the competition for the natural resource that will also rise.

For this particular concern, there is a clear warning to the humanity that, this is a “real danger” because people will clash to own any drop of fresh water and then there will be “water have and water have not” categories of people (Jones, 2010).

Additionally, the article describes water shortage as a “genuine problem” that the world leaders need to address in order to establish a long lasting solution to safeguard the future (Jones, 2010).

The opinion is that, the leaders should put laws which are necessary in governing proper and at the same time, people should try to reduce cases of water pollution in order to facilitate recycling process.

Clear examples and factors arising due to fear of water scarcity

Water crisis is a global issue although it is more pronounced in some countries than others. For instance, a good example is river Nile which is one of the biggest rivers and a major source of water for various uses in North Africa region.

However, river Nile is also a source of worry to the current international relations due to the rising water competition amongst three African countries namely; Egypt, Sudan and Ethiopia (Egypt. com, 2007).

There is a crisis in this part of the world where there is a lot of politics on which country should rightfully tap out water (Egypt. com, 2007).

Egypt being a country with powerful military power is more likely to initiate military action in order to ensure she has control over the use of this water for its domestic use and for agricultural production as well, besides, Sudan and Ethiopia also claims that, they have the exclusive rights to use this water which Egypt argues that, the use of water by these other two countries might starve them (Egypt. com, 2007).

Besides, Lake Victoria in East Africa is also another geographical region where conflict over water is an issue already raising concern.

Due to the fact that, the lake lies along the boarder lines of three countries, namely; Kenya, Ugunda and Tanzania, this is enough reason to have a water crisis in this region (Kamugisha, 2007).

For instance, the many activities takes place at this lake including economical activities such as fishing among others is the major cause of catastrophe over the volume of water which is reportedly decreasing with each day.

There is a conflict over ownership of the lake due to the economical benefits which the three countries are generating from this lake causing some of the countries to extend their boundaries in order to have a bigger share of the lake which has already triggered a major conflict (Kamugisha, 2007).

It is no doubt that, these two cases reflect a rising conflict in Africa which happens to be one of the most affected regions in the world. The conflicts are on the rise as a result of competition for the natural resource which is becoming a scarce every day.

The world is currently facing much worse crisis in the 21 st century than previously when the world leaders were only having crisis over political ideologies and so on (Jones, 2010).

Currently, this is an issue that should be addressed with a lot of concern putting into consideration that, this particular issue of water scarcity might be the next cause of major conflict in the planet especially also considering that this particular natural resource is diminishing at a frightening rate.

In this regard, the humanity has a duty to safeguard their future in order to ensure it’s survival which can not be achieved without a drop of fresh water.

World leader, scientific researchers , international organization among many others, all have a major rule in enlightening the society about the need to protect and take care of this precious commodity in order to ensure sustainability for many years to come because water is an essential component that the whole animal kingdom rely on for life sustenance (Sipes, 2010).

Therefore appropriate and necessary actions should be implemented to curb the issue of water scarcity. Such measures would include; proper management of water catchment areas, reduce cases of water pollution, plant more tree around the globe, and establish policies such as water act which has already been implemented in US to reduce water wastage (Sipes, 2010).

Among many other measures, the solution to water scarcity is achievable if we fully get committed to the set polices in order to provide a long lasting solution one for all.

Egypt (2007). Egypt News – Water crisis hits Egypt “Country of Nile River” . Web.

Jones, D. (2010). Water: The cause of the next global conflict? Web.

Kamugisha, D. (2007). Lake Victoria Extinction and Human Vulnerability in Uganda . Web.

Oxfam (2011). Water for all . Web.

Sipes, J. (2010). Sustainable Solutions for Water Resources . New Jersey: John Wiley and Sons Press.

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IvyPanda. (2019, March 21). Water Shortage' Major Causes and Implication. https://ivypanda.com/essays/water-crisis/

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IvyPanda . 2019. "Water Shortage' Major Causes and Implication." March 21, 2019. https://ivypanda.com/essays/water-crisis/.

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Essay on Save Water: In 100 Words, 200 Words, 300 Words

• Updated on  
• Jun 11, 2024

Water, the essence of life, is indispensable for the sustenance of all living beings on Earth. Its significance cannot be overstated, and as students, it is both our privilege and responsibility to delve into the importance of conserving this precious resource. In this essay, we will embark on a journey to understand the importance of saving water, with essays of varying lengths that progressively unveil the urgency of the matter, especially within the context of India.

Table of Contents

• 1 Essay on Save Water in 100 Words
• 2 Essay on Save Water in 200 Words
• 3 Essay on Save Water in 300 Words

Essay on Save Water in 100 Words

Water, the fundamental essence of life, serves as the cornerstone of existence for all living beings. Yet, astonishingly, only a negligible fraction of Earth’s water reservoir is safe for human consumption. As responsible and aware citizens, it becomes our responsibility to cherish and conserve this precious resource. By embracing judicious water usage practices, addressing leaks promptly, disseminating knowledge about water conservation, and ingraining water-saving behaviours into our everyday routines, we possess the power to come together and shield the prosperity of our future generations. With each drop saved, we forge a brighter, more sustainable tomorrow for our planet and its inhabitants.

Must Read: The Beginner’s Guide to Writing an Essay

Essay on Save Water in 200 Words

Water scarcity is a pressing concern that holds particularly serious implications for a nation like India. With its variable monsoon patterns and increasing population, the country faces an escalating water crisis. To mitigate this looming threat, a unified and collective endeavour from each individual is indispensable.

Amidst the criticality of the situation, the adoption of practical water-saving measures becomes necessary. Rainwater harvesting, for instance, is a strategy that can substantially increase the available water supply. By capturing rainwater and channelling it into storage systems, we can create a sustainable source of water for various purposes. Additionally, the utilization of water-efficient appliances can play a pivotal role in conserving this invaluable resource. Upgrading to appliances designed to minimize water consumption, such as low-flow toilets and efficient washing machines, can significantly curtail wastage.

Curbing water wastage demands a shift in our mindset and behaviours. Simple yet impactful actions like fixing leaky taps, turning off taps while brushing, and reusing water for secondary purposes can collectively make a significant difference. 

More than just a duty, it is our responsibility to safeguard water resources for the sake of future generations. By implementing these measures, we contribute to a more water-resilient society and a sustainable environment. 

Essay on Save Water in 300 Words

Water scarcity is a significant issue in India. We have a unique perspective as students, that can help us understand the problem better and find solutions. Our essay play a crucial role in raising awareness and driving change.

Water scarcity affects various aspects of our lives, including agriculture, economy, and daily routines. When there’s not enough water for crops, it leads to food shortages, impacting everyone, especially those who are already struggling. Even industries rely heavily on water, and its shortage can lead to economic problems.

Our essays act as messengers that can inspire conversations in communities and compel authorities to take action. By highlighting the impact of water scarcity on people’s lives and the environment, we can make everyone realize the urgency of conserving water.

Our current stage in life allows us to see the bigger picture. We understand that our actions today shape our future. Saving water is not just about our generation; it’s about ensuring that upcoming generations have enough resources too. Our collective effort, regardless of our backgrounds, can make a substantial difference.

Through our essays, we can demonstrate our concern and commitment to finding solutions. By using relatable examples and straightforward language, we can help everyone understand the seriousness of the issue. Simple suggestions like using water wisely can lead to meaningful changes. Furthermore, fostering a culture of community-level water conservation initiatives can enhance awareness and cooperation. Schools, colleges, neighbourhoods, and workplaces can initiate campaigns, workshops, and awareness drives to instil the significance of water conservation.

In conclusion, our essays serve a greater purpose than academic assignments. They serve as a call to action for water conservation. Despite our age, our words hold power. Let’s use that power to raise awareness, encourage change, and contribute to a better future for our nation.

Begin with a captivating hook – a quote, fact, or anecdote – to grab the reader’s attention and set the tone for the essay.

While essay lengths may vary, maintaining clarity and conciseness is crucial. Strive to present comprehensive arguments without exceeding the word limit.

Support your claims with evidence such as statistics, expert opinions, or real-life examples. This lends credibility and persuasiveness to your essay.

Summarize your key points, restate your thesis, and offer a closing thought that leaves a lasting impact on the reader.

Related Reads:-     

We hope that this essay blog on Save Water helps. For more amazing daily reads related to essay writing , stay tuned with Leverage Edu .

Manasvi Kotwal

Manasvi's flair in writing abilities is derived from her past experience of working with bootstrap start-ups, Advertisement and PR agencies as well as freelancing. She's currently working as a Content Marketing Associate at Leverage Edu to be a part of its thriving ecosystem.

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• Save Water Save Life Essay

Essay on Save Water Save Life

Water is the most important and valuable natural resource on Earth. It sustains all life. There is no life without water. Water is not only important for human beings but for the entire ecosystem. Without enough water, the existence of humans, as well as animals, is next to impossible. After fresh air, water is the second most important natural resource for the survival of any living being. 

Water is necessary for the survival of each living creature on this planet, be it a small worm, plant, or full-grown tree.  Animals and plants  cannot survive without water. About 71% of Earth’s surface is covered with water. Unfortunately, only 3% of the water available  is freshwater. About two-thirds of the freshwater lies in the form of frozen glaciers and ice caps. The rest of the small portion is available in the form of groundwater and surface water. 

We totally depend on water for multiple purposes. Water is used in agriculture for the irrigation of crops. We use water for drinking, cooking, cleaning, bathing, and other domestic purposes. Water is used for recreational activities. In industries, water is used as a coolant, solvent and also used in other manufacturing purposes. Hydroelectricity is generated with the help of water. Water is also used for navigation and transportation of goods. This tells us how water is the most essential component of life and every drop of water is vital for sustenance. Therefore, water conservation is important to save life on this planet.

Importance of Water:

The basic use of water is drinking, bathing, agriculture, irrigation, hospitality, factories, etc.

Water helps in blood circulation and improves metabolism in the human body

The entire aquatic ecosystem is located in water. It is a home for all the aquatic animals

Water is a major source of transportation after land and air.

Water aids in saliva secretion and oxygen delivery to our bodily cells.

 Some countries have abundant water resources for their residents and serve        the people, whereas others lack natural resources even for survival.

Depletion of fresh water has become a threat to our existence. According to some scientists, the quantity and the quality of water are degrading day by day. Although Earth is covered with almost 71% of water, the quality is that we cannot use it in day-to-day life for domestic purposes. Water quality is so poor that people in some places are prone to several water-borne diseases such as Eluru, caused by contaminated water. 

These instances are eye-opening examples and should be taken seriously for better living conditions for us and our future generation.

Below are the Reasons for Shortage of Fresh Water:

Growth of population leads to excessive consumption of water. 

Daily excessive wastage of water.

The rapid growth of industries has increased the problem of proper disposal of waste material from them. The waste products from these industries contain extremely poisonous elements that are polluting the rivers and other water bodies. 

Pesticides and chemical fertilisers that are used to treat crops also pollute the fresh water. 

Sewage waste that is dumped into the rivers is making the water unsuitable for drinking and washing causing several water-borne diseases like cholera, jaundice and typhoid.  

Use of plastics and disposing them carelessly in the water bodies are affecting aquatic life and further disturbing the entire ecosystem.

Global warming is another major reason for the scarcity of water on earth. According to several types of research, because of global warming, the world will face more stress for water scarcity till the year 2050.

 We now need to be aware of the depletion of fresh water and take adequate    measures to stop this. 

Saving Water: Need of the Hour

Many places face extreme water scarcity due to extremely bad weather conditions, leading to less rainfall and groundwater depletion. In other parts of the world, groundwater is either unusable or overused. As the world's population is growing, so increase in industries and globalisation, causing groundwater to be overused and resulting in water scarcity.

The World Health Organisation (WHO) data shows that many people on this planet don't have access to clean and fresh drinking water. These situations are becoming worse day by day, and we need an immediate plan to control this situation. Various collective measures have to be taken by every individual on this planet and the government of every country to control water scarcity.

Government should impose some strict rules for the conservation of water. The government and the citizens have to take the initiative to create awareness and promote the “conservation of water.” One such initiative taken by the Modi government in India was “JANSHAKTI FOR JALSHAKTI.” This programme began as a means of working toward a brighter future.

Initiatives taken by Some State Governments:

The Punjab government contributed to saving water resources by avoiding waterlogging and fixing the drain  leakage.

The Rajasthan government has taken the initiative to construct small ponds, which  helped the local people of Rajasthan in many ways.

Villages of Telangana have constructed water tanks to conserve rainwater for future use.

These states are an inspiration, and others should also take a step forward to conserve and clean the water, water bodies, and groundwater.

Water saving should be and is the universal responsibility of every human being, living on this Earth.

There are many ways in which we can save water and reduce their pollution:

Be responsible to save water daily. Use only the required amount of water and avoid wastage. We should use water wisely.

We should use a washing machine to full capacity for washing clothes. 

We should not let the tap run while washing hands and face. 

We should water plants in the evening or early morning to minimise evaporation.

We should make provisions to store rainwater on rooftops and reuse the water for household purposes.

Bigger Communities and farmers should adapt to the practice of Rainwater harvesting. 

The industrial waste should be treated properly instead of dumping it into rivers.

We should stop using plastics and dispose of them in an adequate way.

We can make people aware about water problems by means of social campaigns and other ways.

 We should educate our children about water saving from an early age. 

Reusing the water is an important way to save and prevent the scarcity of water. Bathing water can be recycled and used for planting or cleaning.

Rainwater harvesting is the method of collecting rainwater and conserving them for future use.

Conservation of groundwater is another important method in the preservation of groundwater and using it in the future.

 Prevention of waterlogging.

We cannot imagine our lives without water. It is unfortunate that mankind has neglected this precious gift from God. Conservation of water is a necessity to save life. All living organisms on this planet need water to survive. If we do not give importance to saving or conservation of water then our future generations will face water scarcity.

FAQs on Save Water Save Life Essay

1. How to minimise wasting water?

We can minimise wasting water by using only the required amount of water.    We should not let the tap run while washing hands and face. Furthermore, checking for leaks in pipelines and getting them resolved in time and taking shorter baths and reducing the use of showers can also help.

2. When is World Water Day celebrated and why?

World Water Day is celebrated on 22nd March every year. It is celebrated to remind us of the importance of water and how we should minimise wastage of water.

3. Why is it important to save water?

It is important to save water because only 3% of available water is freshwater. Water is vital for the sustenance of living beings on this planet. If we don’t use water properly then our future generations will face the scarcity of water.

4. What methods should farmers adopt for irrigation?

The farmers should stop using pesticides and chemical fertilisers to minimise    pollution in water and adapt to the method of Rainwater harvesting.

5. How to save water daily?

We should close the tap tightly after use, use the required amount of water, check the water level in the tanks, and stop them from overflowing, making rainwater harvesting tunnels to save and reuse rainwater after its purification. These are some basic steps to save water at an individual level.

6. Where can I find more information on water and how to save water?

You can find more information, along with answers to your commonly asked questions, on the Vedantu website and mobile app. So, browse through them to get all your questions answered easily.

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Direct discharge of sewage

Developments in sewage treatment.

• Sources of water pollution
• Types of sewage
• Organic material
• Suspended solids
• Plant nutrients
• Combined systems
• Separate systems
• Alternative systems
• Primary treatment
• Trickling filter
• Activated sludge
• Oxidation pond
• Rotating biological contacter
• Effluent polishing
• Removal of plant nutrients
• Land treatment
• Clustered wastewater treatment systems
• On-site septic tanks and leaching fields
• Wastewater reuse
• Improved treatment methods
• Environmental considerations

What are the common pollutants present in wastewater?

How is wastewater processed at a sewage treatment facility, why is wastewater resource recovery important.

wastewater treatment

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• United States Environmental Protection Agency - How Wastewater Treatment Works...The Basics
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• Table Of Contents

What is wastewater?

Wastewater is the polluted form of water generated from rainwater runoff and human activities. It is also called sewage. It is typically categorized by the manner in which it is generated—specifically, as domestic sewage, industrial sewage, or storm sewage (stormwater).

How is wastewater generated?

• Domestic wastewater results from water use in residences, businesses, and restaurants.
• Industrial wastewater comes from discharges by manufacturing and chemical industries.
• Rainwater in urban and agricultural areas picks up debris, grit, nutrients, and various chemicals, thus contaminating surface runoff water.

Wastewater contains a wide range of contaminants. The quantities and concentrations of these substances depend upon their source. Pollutants are typically categorized as physical, chemical, and biological. Common pollutants include complex organic materials, nitrogen- and phosphorus-rich compounds, and pathogenic organisms ( bacteria , viruses , and protozoa ). Synthetic organic chemicals, inorganic chemicals, microplastics, sediments, radioactive substances, oil, heat, and many other pollutants may also be present in wastewater.

Sewage treatment facilities use physical, chemical, and biological processes for water purification . The processes used in these facilities are also categorized as preliminary, primary, secondary, and tertiary. Preliminary and primary stages remove rags and suspended solids. Secondary processes mainly remove suspended and dissolved organics. Tertiary methods achieve nutrient removal and further polishing of wastewater. Disinfection, the final step, destroys remaining pathogens. The waste sludge generated during treatment is separately stabilized, dewatered, and sent to landfills or used in land applications.

Wastewater is a complex blend of metals, nutrients, and specialized chemicals. Recovery of these valuable materials can help to offset a community’s growing demands for natural resources. Resource recovery concepts are evolving, and researchers are investigating and developing numerous technologies. Reclamation and reuse of treated water for irrigation , groundwater recharge, or recreational purposes are particular areas of focus.

wastewater treatment , the removal of impurities from wastewater, or sewage, before it reaches aquifers or natural bodies of water such as rivers , lakes , estuaries , and oceans . Since pure water is not found in nature (i.e., outside chemical laboratories), any distinction between clean water and polluted water depends on the type and concentration of impurities found in the water as well as on its intended use. In broad terms, water is said to be polluted when it contains enough impurities to make it unfit for a particular use, such as drinking, swimming, or fishing. Although water quality is affected by natural conditions, the word pollution usually implies human activity as the source of contamination. Water pollution , therefore, is caused primarily by the drainage of contaminated wastewater into surface water or groundwater , and wastewater treatment is a major element of water pollution control .

Historical background

Many ancient cities had drainage systems, but they were primarily intended to carry rainwater away from roofs and pavements. A notable example is the drainage system of ancient Rome . It included many surface conduits that were connected to a large vaulted channel called the Cloaca Maxima (“Great Sewer”), which carried drainage water to the Tiber River . Built of stone and on a grand scale, the Cloaca Maxima is one of the oldest existing monuments of Roman engineering.

There was little progress in urban drainage or sewerage during the Middle Ages. Privy vaults and cesspools were used, but most wastes were simply dumped into gutters to be flushed through the drains by floods. Toilets (water closets) were installed in houses in the early 19th century, but they were usually connected to cesspools, not to sewers . In densely populated areas, local conditions soon became intolerable because the cesspools were seldom emptied and frequently overflowed. The threat to public health became apparent. In England in the middle of the 19th century, outbreaks of cholera were traced directly to well-water supplies contaminated with human waste from privy vaults and cesspools. It soon became necessary for all water closets in the larger towns to be connected directly to the storm sewers. This transferred sewage from the ground near houses to nearby bodies of water. Thus, a new problem emerged: surface water pollution.

It used to be said that “the solution to pollution is dilution.” When small amounts of sewage are discharged into a flowing body of water, a natural process of stream self-purification occurs. Densely populated communities generate such large quantities of sewage, however, that dilution alone does not prevent pollution. This makes it necessary to treat or purify wastewater to some degree before disposal.

The construction of centralized sewage treatment plants began in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, principally in the United Kingdom and the United States . Instead of discharging sewage directly into a nearby body of water, it was first passed through a combination of physical, biological, and chemical processes that removed some or most of the pollutants. Also beginning in the 1900s, new sewage-collection systems were designed to separate storm water from domestic wastewater, so that treatment plants did not become overloaded during periods of wet weather.

After the middle of the 20th century, increasing public concern for environmental quality led to broader and more stringent regulation of wastewater disposal practices. Higher levels of treatment were required. For example, pretreatment of industrial wastewater, with the aim of preventing toxic chemicals from interfering with the biological processes used at sewage treatment plants, often became a necessity. In fact, wastewater treatment technology advanced to the point where it became possible to remove virtually all pollutants from sewage. This was so expensive, however, that such high levels of treatment were not usually justified.

Wastewater treatment plants became large, complex facilities that required considerable amounts of energy for their operation. After the rise of oil prices in the 1970s, concern for energy conservation became a more important factor in the design of new pollution control systems. Consequently, land disposal and subsurface disposal of sewage began to receive increased attention where feasible . Such “low-tech” pollution control methods not only might help to conserve energy but also might serve to recycle nutrients and replenish groundwater supplies.

Essay on Water Wastage

Students are often asked to write an essay on Water Wastage in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on Water Wastage

What is water wastage.

Water wastage means using more water than necessary or letting water flow away without using it. This can happen at home, like when we leave the tap running while brushing our teeth, or in bigger places like farms and factories.

Causes of Water Wastage

A lot of water is wasted by not fixing leaks, using too much water for gardening, or washing cars with hoses. People often forget to turn off taps completely, leading to more water being wasted.

Effects of Water Wastage

Wasting water means less water for drinking, farming, and wildlife. It can lead to water shortages and harm the environment by reducing the water available in rivers and lakes.

How to Stop Water Wastage

To reduce water wastage, we can fix leaks, use water-saving devices, and be careful about how much water we use every day. It’s important for everyone to play their part in saving water.

250 Words Essay on Water Wastage

Water wastage: a major concern.

There are many reasons why water wastage occurs, some include:

Consequences of Water Wastage

Water wastage has a number of negative consequences, both for the environment and for our economy. Some of these consequences include:

Water wastage is a serious problem with a number of negative consequences. It is important to be aware of the causes and consequences of water wastage and to take steps to reduce our consumption. By making small changes to our daily habits, we can help to conserve water and protect our planet.

500 Words Essay on Water Wastage

Water wastage refers to the misuse or unnecessary use of water. This happens when we use more water than we need for activities like washing, cleaning, and watering plants. Water is a precious resource, but many people around the world don’t realize its value. When we waste water, we are not just losing water but also the energy and effort it takes to clean and deliver that water to our homes.

One major cause of water wastage is leaking taps and pipes. A single dripping tap can waste a lot of water over time. Imagine if every house has a leaking tap, the amount of water wasted would be huge. Another cause is leaving the tap running while brushing teeth or washing dishes. This habit, though it seems small, can lead to a large amount of water wastage if everyone does it. Over-watering gardens is also a common cause. Sometimes, people use more water than plants actually need, which not only wastes water but can also harm the plants.

How to Save Water

Saving water is easier than many people think. Fixing leaks in taps and pipes is a simple step that can save a lot of water. Turning off the tap while brushing teeth or washing dishes can also make a big difference. People can also collect rainwater to water their gardens, which not only saves tap water but is also better for plants. Installing water-saving devices like low-flow showerheads and dual-flush toilets can significantly reduce water usage in homes.

The Role of Education

Education plays a key role in solving the problem of water wastage. Schools can teach students about the importance of water and how to save it. Learning about water conservation from a young age can help children develop good habits that they will carry into adulthood. Additionally, awareness campaigns can inform the wider community about the importance of saving water and how everyone can help.

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5 Ways We Waste Water

Water is a resource that much of the developed world takes for granted, but that many in the developing world struggle to find enough of every day.

That struggle could spread as climate change and other manmade pressures change the availability of water around the globe, and as Earth's population grows ever larger, making the need for that resource even more acute.

The number of humans on the planet could reach 11 billion people by the end of the century, the United Nations projects, up from just over 7 billion people now. Already, more than 2 billion people face a water scarcity each month, but tremendous amounts of water are still wasted. [ What 11 Billion People Mean for Water Scarcity ]

From lawns to flood irrigation, here are five ways that people waste water and some ways to reduce that waste.

Agriculture uses about 70 percent of the available freshwater on the planet. Around the world, most farming relies on flood irrigation — where fields are drenched with water and the excess runs off into nearby streams and rivers.

But flood irrigation wastes tons of water and can pollute waterways with fertilizers, creating dead zones in the ocean (where oxygen is used up and not available for marine creatures) and contributing to algal blooms, which can be toxic to marine life.

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Some regions, such as Israel, have moved to highly efficient drip irrigation, which directs water right onto the roots of the plant. But such systems are expensive to implement and don't work for all crops, so many regions will probably shift toward intermediate solutions such as sprinklers, which produce less waste runoff, and covering crops to prevent water evaporation.

Lawns are one of the thirstiest water hogs in cities and towns. While lawns may be appropriate in some areas, most green expanses aren't made of local grasses adapted to grow in the area. And the vast majority of manicured front yards require hefty watering to flourish.

As cities tighten their belts, some areas may require residents to water lawns less frequently or forgo lawn-watering altogether. In particularly arid regions, that may mean a lawn of cacti or rocks, whereas other areas may rip out the water-hungry grass species, such as St. Augustine, and replace them with mixtures of native grasses that guzzle less water. As a bonus, many of these native grasses are softer and less itchy than the old standbys.

Poor crop choice

As the population grows, it doesn't make sense for desert-dwellers to grow thirsty crops such as cotton or raise cattle, which requires much more water than producing an equivalent weight of wheat or potatoes.

As the planet becomes drier, countries will have to shift their economies, so that drier regions produce less thirsty products and wetter regions make water-hungry products such as beef .

Newer plants

But simply switching which crops are produced may not be enough for some regions of the world. Instead, they may need to manipulate the plants own systems' for dealing with drought to increase production.

One way to do that is to water crops less during certain parts of the harvest. The plants then direct more growth into the fruit, away from leaves and stems. That means farmers can grow more crops with less water. 

Flushed down the toilet

One of the biggest sources of usable water is treated wastewater. After people brush their teeth, wash their vegetables or flush the toilet, most of that water is treated and sanitized.

While that water isn't really suitable for a big glass of water (unless you're on the International Space Station ), much of it could be put to use watering crops, freeing up freshwater for drinking. Currently, the United States treats 70 percent of its wastewater, but only uses 4 percent of that amount. Increasing the wastewater usage would provide more water for everyone.

Follow Tia Ghose on Twitter  and Google+ .   Follow   LiveScience @livescience , Facebook   & Google+ . Original article on  LiveScience .

Tia is the managing editor and was previously a senior writer for Live Science. Her work has appeared in Scientific American, Wired.com and other outlets. She holds a master's degree in bioengineering from the University of Washington, a graduate certificate in science writing from UC Santa Cruz and a bachelor's degree in mechanical engineering from the University of Texas at Austin. Tia was part of a team at the Milwaukee Journal Sentinel that published the Empty Cradles series on preterm births, which won multiple awards, including the 2012 Casey Medal for Meritorious Journalism.

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Essay on Water Crisis 500+ Words

Water, a life-sustaining resource, is essential for all living creatures on Earth. However, a water crisis is emerging as one of the most significant challenges humanity faces today. In this essay, we will explore the water crisis, its causes and consequences, and the critical need for sustainable solutions to ensure a better future for our planet.

The Growing Water Crisis

A water crisis refers to the scarcity of clean, fresh water needed for various purposes, such as drinking, agriculture, industry, and sanitation. It’s a global problem that affects people, ecosystems, and economies. According to the United Nations, by 2030, nearly half of the world’s population could be facing water scarcity.

Causes of the Water Crisis

a. Overpopulation : The world’s population is rapidly increasing, leading to higher water demand for drinking, irrigation, and industrial use.

b. Climate Change : Changing weather patterns, including prolonged droughts and more frequent extreme weather events, are affecting water availability.

c. Pollution : Water sources are often polluted by chemicals, sewage, and industrial waste, making water unsafe for consumption.

d. Wasteful Practices : Water wastage in agriculture, industry, and households contributes to the crisis.

Consequences of Water Scarcity

a. Health Issues : Lack of clean water leads to waterborne diseases like cholera and dysentery, affecting millions, especially children.

b. Food Insecurity : Agriculture heavily relies on water, and water scarcity can lead to crop failures and food shortages.

c. Conflict : Scarcity can trigger conflicts over limited water resources, leading to tensions between communities and even nations.

d. Ecosystem Damage : Wildlife and ecosystems suffer as water sources shrink, impacting biodiversity.

Sustainable Solutions to the Water Crisis

a. Water Conservation : Responsible water use, fixing leaks, and using water-saving appliances can make a significant difference.

b. Improved Infrastructure : Building and maintaining water supply and sanitation systems can help reduce water losses.

c. Rainwater Harvesting : Collecting rainwater for household use and agriculture can mitigate scarcity.

d. Desalination : Technology to turn seawater into freshwater is an option for regions with limited freshwater sources.

The Importance of Education

Education plays a vital role in raising awareness about the water crisis. Schools and communities can educate people about responsible water use, conservation, and the importance of preserving our water resources. Students can become water ambassadors, spreading the message about the need to protect our water.

Global Efforts to Combat Water Scarcity

International organizations like the United Nations and NGOs are working to address water scarcity on a global scale. They provide funding, expertise, and resources to implement sustainable water management practices in affected regions. Collaboration between countries and communities is key to finding solutions.

Conclusion of Essay on Water Crisis

In conclusion, the water crisis is a pressing global issue that affects people, ecosystems, and economies. Understanding its causes and consequences is the first step in finding solutions. It is essential for individuals, communities, and governments to take action by conserving water, improving infrastructure, and supporting sustainable practices. Education and global cooperation are vital in our fight against water scarcity.

By working together, we can ensure that future generations have access to the life-sustaining resource of clean, fresh water. Water is precious, and its conservation is our collective responsibility. As we address the water crisis, we are not only securing our own future but also safeguarding the health and well-being of our planet and all its inhabitants.

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Save Water (Water Conservation) Essay – 10 Lines, Short & Long Essay For Children

Key Points To Remember When Writing Essay On Save Water For Lower Primary Classes

10 lines on ‘save water’ for kids, 100-word paragraph on ‘save water’ for children, short essay on ‘save water’ in 200 words for kids, long essay on ‘save water’ in english for children, what will your child learn from this essay.

Water water everywhere, not a drop to drink! The essay on ‘save water’ for classes 1, 2 and 3 is explained in detail. Clean water scarcity is a big problem in the country and affects the lives of many. Water is required for all humans, animals and plants to survive. Out of the 71 per cent covered with water, approximately 3.5 per cent is available for drinking purposes, known as freshwater. Therefore if we do not save these freshwater resources, we will face problems in the future. Polluting rivers by disposing of waste and washing clothes cause water problems. The save water essay in English will help to understand its importance and the necessary action to be taken. Essay writing helps develop critical thinking and creativity in kids, and it also helps to gather information on a lot of topics.

Wondering how to write an essay on saving water? Here are a few points to remember:

• Explain the importance of water as a natural resource and its uses in our daily lives.
• Write the examples of water pollution and wastage.
• Keep the essay simple and short.
• Make use of pictures or tables wherever necessary.
• Once the basics are done, encourage your child to write an essay in their own words.

Kids enjoy simple content to read and write. Hence these few lines on saving water will help to write an essay for classes 1 and 2 kids.

• Water is vital for all living beings to maintain life on earth.
• It is used for cooking, washing, cleaning, bathing, irrigation, etc.
• Conserving water is important because we cannot survive without it.
• Water helps humans to stay hydrated and help fight diseases.
• Water is used in industries like mining, steel, electricity, food, etc., in large quantities.
• Lack or shortage of water causes diseases and conditions like drought, hunger, etc.
• Throwing waste into water causes water pollution and harms fish and other aquatic life.
• Do not leave the taps open while brushing, shaving, etc.
• Use water in buckets to conserve water than choosing a shower for bathing.
• Rainwater harvesting is a good method of preserving water.

A short paragraph on saving water can help children learn the importance and use of water and how important it is to use it carefully.

Water is a natural resource that is essential for living on earth. Without water, the earth would be dry, and plants, animals, and humans would not be able to survive. Additional uses include irrigation, washing clothes, cooking, cleaning, etc. We all know that water is not an unlimited resource, and it is important we do not waste it. Daily practices like leaving the taps open while brushing, shaving, etc., cause water wastage. We should not throw garbage in water bodies because polluted water bodies affect marine life and human health when we consume seafood. Shortage of water causes diseases and damages agriculture too.

A short essay for classes 1, 2 and 3 will help young ones understand the use of water and the importance of conserving it. It will also enhance their writing skills.

Our planet earth is covered with around 71 per cent water. When seen from outer space, it appears blue and is also called the blue planet. Air and water are what make life possible on earth. Plants, animals, and humans need water to survive. Water is necessary for bathing, cooking, irrigation, washing, etc. Industries like mining, petrochemical, electricity, food, etc., rely on large quantities of water for their activities. However, in recent times we use water as it is an unlimited resource. No care is taken to use it judiciously. Discharging industrial and domestic waste in water bodies causes pollution. It affects marine life too. Water scarcity leads to drought and poverty and impacts the nation’s economy badly. Therefore, steps must be taken to conserve water. Rainwater harvesting, reusing water, awareness programs in schools, closing taps after using them, and disposing of wastes in bins are a few steps we can take as responsible citizens to save water. Storing running water in dams, using water cans instead of hosepipes, installing canals on rooftops, and adopting bucket baths instead of showers are small initiatives that significantly save water. Acting responsibly in this matter will benefit the present generations and the generations to come. So, saving water, saving nature, and saving our future generations should be our motto.

The save water essay for class 3 kids seeks to explain the importance of water in our daily lives, why water is essential for the planet and the activities that cause water pollution in recent times. The importance of a water conservation essay is such that children learn about the problems our planet faces and can act towards making the situation better.

What Is Water Conservation?

Water conservation means the practice of using water efficiently wherever possible, thereby minimising its wastage. It includes all steps taken to preserve water bodies, freshwater sources, and our daily requirements without polluting or wasting them.

Necessity And Importance Of Saving Water

Water, as we all know, is a vital resource for the existence of life on earth. Though its supply seems abundant, the percentage of available freshwater is even less. Global warming and constant climate change have led to delayed rains, causing water scarcity. An increase in population, the rapid development of industries and polluted water bodies have further worsened the issue. Without proper conservation efforts, the chances are that we might exhaust it. Saving water has economic and social benefits. Besides, protecting water resources for future efficient use reduces wastage and contributes to energy-efficient operations.

What Are The Different Uses Of Water?

Water is used for a variety of needs, and the major ones are listed below:

• For daily activities:  Bathing, cleaning, washing, and cooking require water on a daily basis.
• Industrial uses:  Water is needed in large quantities in mining, food, chemicals, and several other industries.
• Agricultural needs:  Watering is essential for the survival and growth of plants.
• Ecosystem balance:  The water cycle is important for rains and the balance of the ecosystem.

Causes And Effects Of Water Shortage

1. Causes of water shortage:  Around 70 per cent of the earth is covered with water, but only 3 per cent of it is available for use. Therefore the availability is limited, and hence careless usage causes a shortage. An increase in population, rapid industrialisation, and climatic changes are major causes of water shortage.

2. Reasons for freshwater storage and how to store it:  The need to keep freshwater stored arises due to careless use in daily activities, pollution of water bodies by dumping sewage, pesticides, chemicals, etc. Rainwater harvesting, installation of canals on rooftops, and utmost care not to waste water during brushing, shaving, and similar activities are a few methods to store it.

3. Effects of water shortage:  Water scarcity causes drought and severely affects agriculture, plants, animals, and human beings. Industrial activities will come to a stop without water and, in the long run, affect the economy as a whole.

What Are The Best Ways To Save Water?

• Use rainwater for watering plants, laundry, etc.
• Turn off taps when not in use.
• Participate in save water save nature programmes.
• Water plants in the evening to reduce evaporation.
• Prefer a bucket bath instead of a shower.
• Check for any leaks in taps.
• Use washing machines in full loads.
• Invest in low flush toilets.
• Be cautious while washing cars.
• Don’t wash parking areas or garages daily.

The need to save water is at an all-time high, and educating children about its importance contributes a long way. Through this essay, your child will learn how important water is for lives on earth and the problems water shortage can cause. It also introduces them to water conservation and various steps that can be followed to achieve the same. They will learn how to participate in the idea of saving water by taking small steps to conserve water and thereby help preserve the earth.

Water is what makes the earth habitable; therefore, it is our responsibility to use it judiciously. And we should start sensitising our kids about it.

Essay On Importance of Water for Class 1, 2 and 3 Kids Water Pollution Essay for Classes 1, 2 and 3 Children How to Write An Essay On Save the Environment for Lower Primary Classes

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Home — Essay Samples — Environment — Water Scarcity — Water Crisis: Understanding the Causes and Seeking Solutions

Water Crisis: Understanding The Causes and Seeking Solutions

• Categories: Environmental Issues Water Scarcity

About this sample

Words: 1019 |

Published: Jan 28, 2021

Words: 1019 | Pages: 2 | 6 min read

Table of contents

Causes of the water crisis, consequences of the water crisis, seeking solutions to the water crisis.

• Invest in water storage, distribution, and treatment infrastructure.
• Implement smart technologies for monitoring and controlling water usage.
• Promote efficient water allocation and pricing mechanisms.
• Encourage farmers to adopt precision agriculture techniques.
• Promote the use of drought-resistant crop varieties.
• Implement efficient irrigation systems, such as drip irrigation.
• Reduce excessive use of fertilizers and pesticides.
• Promote water conservation at the individual and community levels.
• Fix water leaks and encourage the use of low-flow appliances.
• Educate the public on water-saving habits.
• Invest in advanced wastewater treatment facilities.
• Implement stricter regulations on industrial and agricultural wastewater discharge.
• Promote the recycling and reuse of treated wastewater (water reclamation).
• Reduce greenhouse gas emissions through sustainable energy sources.
• Support afforestation and reforestation efforts to maintain water catchment areas.
• Develop and implement climate-resilient water management strategies.
• ABC News. (2019). Chennai's the latest city to have almost run out of water, and other cities could follow suit. Retrieved from https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-06- 22/chennais-telling-the-globe-a-story-about-water-scarcity/11229084
• Ceranic, I. (2018). Perth rainfall is higher than Melbourne, Hobart, London despite reputation for sunny beaches. Retrieved from https://www.abc.net.au/news/2018- 04-24/perth-rainfall-higher-than-melbourne-hobart-and-london/9688142
• Green Water Plumbing. (2019). Water Crisis: Is Australia Running Out of Water? Retrieved from https://www.greenplanetplumbing.com.au/water-crisis-is- australia-running-out-of-water/
• Juneja, P. (n.d.). The Economic Impact of Cape Town’s Water Crisis. Retrieved from https://www.managementstudyguide.com/economic-impact-of-cape-town-water- crisis.htm
• Qureshi, M. E.; Hanjra, Munir A.; Ward, J. (2013). Impact of water scarcity in Australia on global food security in an era of climate change. Food Policy, 38:136-145. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2012.11.003
• Thirumurthy, P. The News Minute. (2019). Chennai water crisis: Schools closes down for junior classes, others declare half-day. Retrieved from https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/chennai-water-crisis-school-closes-down- junior-classes-others-declare-half-day-103919
• United Nations. (2014). Water for Life Decade: Water scarcity. Retrieved from https://www.un.org/waterforlifedecade/scarcity.shtml
• Wright, I. (2017). This is what Australia’s growing cities need to do to avoid running dry. Retrieved from https://theconversation.com/this-is-what-australias-growing-cities- need-to-do-to-avoid-running-dry-86301
• Lakshmi, K. (2019). Chennai’s Day Zero: It’s not just meteorology but mismanagement that’s made the city run dry. Retrieved from https://www.thehindu.com/sci- tech/energy-and-environment/chennais-day-zero-its-not-just-meteorology-but- mismanagement-thats-made-the-city-run-dry/article28197491.ece

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Effects of Wastage of Water: Importance & Water Conservation

Jasmine Grover

Senior Content Specialist

Water is an essential resource for life on earth, and its conservation is critical for the well-being of people and the environment. However, with the growing population and increasing demand for water, water scarcity has become a significant issue in many regions worldwide. One of the main contributors to water scarcity is the wastage of water, which occurs due to inefficient usage, leakage, and other factors. Water wastage not only increases the water scarcity problem but also has several adverse effects on the environment, economy, and society.

Key Terms: Water wastage, loss of water, water scarcity, environmental degradation, water pollution

What is water wastage?

[Click Here for Sample Questions]

Water wastage refers to the inefficient use of water resources or the unnecessary loss of water due to leakage, overuse, or other factors. Water wastage can occur at various levels, including households, businesses, and industries, and can have significant adverse effects on the environment, economy, and society.

Importance of conserving water

Water is a finite resource, and its conservation is essential to meet the increasing demand for water due to population growth and economic development. Conserving water helps to ensure water availability for future generations and reduces the risk of water scarcity and its associated problems, such as droughts, conflicts, and environmental degradation.

Effects of Water Wastage

Water wastage has several adverse effects, including environmental, economic, and social impacts. Environmentally, water wastage contributes to water scarcity, depletion of natural resources, and damage to aquatic life and ecosystems. Economically, it leads to increased water bills and costs, loss of revenue for businesses, and decreased agricultural production. Socially, water wastage causes the inequitable distribution of water resources, health risks, and limited access to education and employment opportunities. To address these problems, it is crucial to conserve water and ensure its sustainable use.

I. Environmental Effects of Water Wastage

Water is a precious natural resource that is essential for life on earth. However, the inefficient use and wastage of water have several adverse environmental effects. Water scarcity and depletion of natural resources, effects on biodiversity and aquatic life, and contribution to climate change and global warming are some of the significant environmental effects of water wastage.

Water scarcity and depletion of natural resources:

Water is a finite resource, and wastage leads to water scarcity, which can have severe environmental consequences. In arid and semi-arid regions, water wastage can deplete the already scarce water resources, leading to desertification, soil erosion, and loss of vegetation. The depletion of natural resources due to water wastage can also impact the availability of water for agriculture and other human activities, leading to reduced food production and economic instability.

Effects on biodiversity and aquatic life:

Water wastage can have severe impacts on aquatic ecosystems and biodiversity. The reduction of water availability due to wastage can lead to a decline in aquatic habitats, endangering the survival of aquatic life. Additionally, the contamination of water sources due to wastewater and chemical pollutants can have severe health impacts on aquatic life and even humans who rely on these water sources.

Contribution to climate change and global warming:

Water wastage also has significant impacts on climate change and global warming. Wastewater treatment and distribution require a significant amount of energy, leading to increased greenhouse gas emissions. Furthermore, the depletion of water resources due to wastage can also lead to the reduction of carbon sequestration in forests and other vegetation, which can worsen the effects of climate change.

II. Economic Effects of Water Wastage

Increased water bills and costs:

When water is wasted, it leads to increased demand for water, which can lead to higher water bills for households and businesses. Water utilities may also have to spend more on infrastructure and maintenance to meet the demand for water. This, in turn, can lead to higher taxes or fees for water usage, affecting the cost of living for individuals and businesses.

Loss of revenue for businesses:

Water is a critical input for many businesses, including agriculture, food processing, and manufacturing. When water is wasted, businesses may experience a shortage of water supply, which can affect their production capacity and profitability. This can lead to reduced revenues, loss of jobs, and, in extreme cases, business closure.

Impact on agricultural production and food prices:

Agriculture is one of the most water-intensive economic activities, and water wastage can have a significant impact on crop yields and quality. When water is wasted, farmers may experience a shortage of water supply, leading to reduced crop production, lower quality produce, and increased production costs. This, in turn, can lead to higher food prices for consumers, especially in regions heavily dependent on agriculture.

III. Social Effects of Water Wastage

• Inequitable distribution of water resources

One of the most significant social effects of water wastage is the inequitable distribution of water resources. In many parts of the world, access to clean and safe water is not evenly distributed, and people living in rural or poor urban areas often face water scarcity and poor water quality. When water is wasted, it exacerbates the water scarcity problem and reduces the availability of water for those who need it the most. This, in turn, increases the burden on vulnerable communities, especially women and girls, who have to travel long distances to fetch water.

• Health risks and diseases caused by water contamination

Water wastage also poses health risks and diseases caused by water contamination. When water is wasted, it can lead to the accumulation of stagnant water, which becomes a breeding ground for mosquitoes and other disease-causing organisms. This can increase the risk of waterborne diseases such as cholera, typhoid, and diarrhea, which disproportionately affect vulnerable communities with limited access to healthcare.

• Impact on access to education and employment opportunities

Furthermore, water wastage can impact access to education and employment opportunities. Children and women are often responsible for fetching water in households where water is scarce. This takes away valuable time that could be used for education or income-generating activities, affecting their future opportunities. Similarly, businesses and industries that rely on water for their operations may face operational challenges or even closure due to water scarcity or poor water quality.

Ways to Reduce Water Wastage

By adopting simple water conservation techniques, we can reduce water wastage and promote sustainable use of water resources. In this article, we will explore some of the ways to reduce water wastage.

Fix leaks: Leaks are a significant contributor to water wastage, and fixing them can save a significant amount of water. Check for leaks in faucets, pipes, and toilets, and repair them promptly.

Install water-efficient appliances: Replace old and inefficient appliances such as toilets, showerheads, and washing machines with water-efficient ones that use less water. This can save significant amounts of water and reduce water bills.

Collect and reuse water: Collect and reuse water for non-potable uses such as gardening, cleaning, and flushing toilets. This can reduce the demand for freshwater and save water.

Practice water-efficient habits: Simple habits such as turning off the tap while brushing teeth, taking shorter showers, and using a bucket instead of a hose to wash cars can save significant amounts of water.

Landscaping: Use water-efficient landscaping techniques such as planting native species that require less water, mulching, and reducing lawn areas. This can save significant amounts of water in landscaping.

Educate others: Educate others about the importance of water conservation and ways to reduce water wastage. Encourage them to adopt water-efficient practices and become responsible water users.

In conclusion, reducing water wastage requires collective efforts and conscious choices by individuals, communities, and governments. By adopting simple water conservation techniques, we can promote sustainable use of water resources and ensure their availability for future generations.

In conclusion, water is a precious resource, and its wastage can have significant impacts on the environment, economy, and society. Water wastage exacerbates water scarcity, contributes to the degradation of ecosystems, and leads to increased costs for households and businesses. Moreover, it has severe social effects, including inequitable distribution of water resources, health risks and diseases caused by water contamination, and impact on access to education and employment opportunities.

To mitigate the effects of water wastage, it is crucial to promote sustainable use of water resources through conservation, efficient usage, and sound management practices. This requires collective efforts and cooperation between individuals, communities, and governments to ensure equitable distribution of water resources, promote hygiene and sanitation, and reduce water wastage. By adopting simple water conservation techniques and becoming responsible water users, we can help conserve water and ensure its availability for future generations. It is time for us to take action and contribute to a sustainable future where water resources are protected, conserved, and utilized efficiently.

Things to Remember

• Water wastage leads to a scarcity of clean water resources, which affects both humans and the environment.
• Overuse of water can lead to increased energy consumption, as more energy is required to treat and transport water to meet the growing demand.
• Wastewater pollution can cause significant harm to aquatic ecosystems and the species that depend on them for survival.
• In arid regions, water scarcity can lead to conflicts and hinder economic development, as industries and agriculture rely heavily on water.
• Adopting water-efficient practices and technologies can significantly reduce water wastage and save money in the long run.

Sample Questions

Ques. What are the effects of wastewater on human health? (3 marks)

Ans. Wastewater can have serious health effects on humans if it is not properly treated and disposed of. It can contain a variety of harmful substances, including pathogens, chemicals, and pharmaceuticals, that can cause illnesses and diseases such as gastroenteritis, hepatitis A, cholera, and typhoid fever. These diseases can be particularly harmful to children, the elderly, and people with weakened immune systems. In addition to causing direct health impacts, wastewater can also contribute to the spread of antibiotic-resistant bacteria and other infectious agents. Therefore, it is essential to treat and dispose of wastewater safely to protect human health and prevent the spread of disease.

Ques. What causes water wastage?  (5 marks)

Ans.  Some causes of water wastage

• Poor infrastructure and leaky pipes can cause significant water loss.
• Overuse of water in domestic, agricultural, and industrial activities.
• Inefficient irrigation systems and agricultural practices lead to water wastage.
• Wasteful consumer behavior, such as leaving taps running or taking long showers.
• Climate change and droughts can exacerbate water scarcity and lead to increased water wastage.
• Lack of awareness and education on water conservation practices.
• Inadequate water pricing or billing systems can lead to excessive use and wastage of water.
• Poor management and maintenance of water resources can lead to wastage.

Ques. What is waste water? (3 marks)

Ans. Wastewater refers to any water that has been contaminated by human, animal, or industrial activities and is no longer suitable for use in its natural state. It can include both domestic wastewater from households, such as water from toilets, sinks, and showers, as well as industrial wastewater from factories, power plants, and other industrial processes. Wastewater can contain a variety of pollutants, including chemicals, heavy metals, bacteria, viruses, and other harmful substances, which can pose a serious threat to public health and the environment if not properly treated before being discharged back into water bodies or used for irrigation. Proper treatment and disposal of wastewater are essential to protect human health and the environment and ensure sustainable water resources for future generations.

Ques. How can we reuse waste water? (3 marks)

Ans.  There are various ways in which we can reuse wastewater to conserve water resources and reduce the burden on natural water sources. Some common methods of wastewater reuse are:

• Irrigation: Treated wastewater can be used for irrigation purposes, such as watering lawns, gardens, and crops. This can help to reduce the demand for freshwater and conserve natural water resources.
• Industrial reuse: Wastewater can be treated and reused in industrial processes, such as cooling systems, boiler feedwater, and manufacturing processes.
• Groundwater recharge: Treated wastewater can be used to recharge groundwater sources, which can help to replenish depleted aquifers and maintain the groundwater table.

Ques. Why is water important? (3 marks)

Ans. Water is essential to life and is one of the most important substances on Earth. Here are some reasons why water is important:

• It is necessary for human survival: Our bodies are made up of about 60% water, and we need to consume water regularly to maintain bodily functions such as regulating body temperature, transporting nutrients and oxygen, and removing waste products.
• It supports the growth of plants and animals: Water is essential for the growth of plants, which provide food for humans and animals. It also provides habitats for aquatic animals and supports biodiversity.
• It plays a key role in the water cycle: Water evaporates from oceans, lakes, and rivers, forms clouds, and falls back to the Earth as precipitation. This process is known as the water cycle, and it plays a critical role in maintaining the Earth's climate and weather patterns.

Ques. What are the 2 types of wastewater? (3 marks)

Ans. The two main types of wastewater are:

• Domestic Wastewater: This type of wastewater is generated from households and includes wastewater from toilets, sinks, showers, and washing machines. Domestic wastewater can contain organic matter, pathogens, and chemicals that can pose a risk to public health and the environment.
• Industrial Wastewater: This type of wastewater is generated from industrial processes, such as manufacturing, mining, and power generation. Industrial wastewater can contain a range of pollutants, including heavy metals, chemicals, and organic compounds, which can be harmful to human health and the environment. Industrial wastewater is typically more complex and difficult to treat than domestic wastewater.

Ques. What are some ways to prevent wastage of water? (5 marks)

Ans. Water is a finite resource, and it is important that we use it wisely and responsibly to ensure that it is available for future generations. Here are some ways to prevent wastage of water:

• Fix leaks: Even small leaks in pipes and faucets can waste a significant amount of water over time. Regularly check for and fix leaks to save water.
• Install water- efficient fixtures: Installing low-flow showerheads, faucets, and toilets can significantly reduce water usage without compromising on performance.
• Use water wisely outdoors: Water plants and lawns early in the morning or late in the evening to reduce evaporation, and use drought-resistant plants and grasses.
• Collect and reuse water: Collect rainwater and greywater for use in watering plants and other non-potable uses.
• Be mindful of water usage: Turn off the tap while brushing teeth, take shorter showers, and only run washing machines and dishwashers when full.
• By implementing these simple measures, we can significantly reduce our water usage and prevent wastage of this precious resource. It is important that we all do our part to conserve water and protect the environment.

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CBSE X Related Questions

1. one-half of a convex lens is covered with a black paper. will this lens produce a complete image of the object verify your answer experimentally. explain your observations., 2. oil and fat containing food items are flushed with nitrogen. why, 3. write the balanced chemical equations for the following reactions.  (a) calcium hydroxide + carbon dioxide  \(→\)  calcium carbonate + water  (b) zinc + silver nitrate  \(→\)  zinc nitrate + silver  (c) aluminium + copper chloride  \(→\)  aluminium chloride + copper  (d) barium chloride + potassium sulphate  \(→\)  barium sulphate + potassium chloride, 4. balance the following chemical equations. (a) hno 3 +ca(oh) 2   \(→\)  ca(no 3 ) 2 + h 2 o  (b) naoh + h 2 so 4   \(→\)  na 2 so 4 + h 2 o  (c) nacl + agno 3   \(→\)  agcl + nano 3   (d) bacl + h 2 so 4   \(→\)  baso 4 + hcl, 5. which of the statements about the reaction below are incorrect \(\text{ 2pbo(s) + c(s) → 2pb(s) + c}o_2\text{(g)}\) (a) lead is getting reduced.  (b) carbon dioxide is getting oxidized.  (c) carbon is getting oxidized.  (d) lead oxide is getting reduced..

(a) and (b)

(a) and (c)

• (a), (b) and (c)

6. What is the difference between the manner in which movement takes place in a sensitive plant and the movement in our legs?

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Essay on Save Water Save Life for Students and Children

500+ words essay on save water save life.

Water has become a highly necessary part of human being’s existence on Earth. Thus, the importance of water can be compared to the importance of air. All living organisms whether it is human, animals, or plants. Everyone is completely depending on fresh and potable water. Thus, essay on save water save a life is an insight into some of the unknown and important benefits of water for human beings. 

Water is perhaps the second most important substance on Earth after the air. Apart from drinking, there are other benefits of water as well. Thus, it includes cooking, washing, cleaning, etc. Water is not a vital part of the human being’s survival. Also, it important for the survival of trees and plants. Additionally, it is a precious element required for the agricultural as well as various other industrial sectors. 

Currently, the biggest problem related to global warming is a huge water depreciation on Earth. This is mainly caused due to misuse of water happening at various places. In the current scenario, it is important to understand the formula for the conversation of water and thereby save water. Because pure water resources are the primary sources for all our necessities. And when it becomes depreciated, it can lead to huge catastrophic conditions for human beings. 

Get the huge list of more than 500 Essay Topics and Ideas

Need to Save Water

Currently, there are many regions in the world that are facing extreme water scarcity due to deçline of groundwater and scanty rainfalls. Also, in some areas, the groundwater is contaminated or it has been overused. Thus, these factors have to lead to drought situations and in these areas it has lead to water scarcity. Furthermore, urbanization and industrialization have added to the problems where groundwater has been overused to fulfill the increasing demands of the population. 

According to the WHO report, 1 out of people does not have access to safe drinking water. Seeing this, the water crisis in the future does seem inevitable. Also, it calls for an immediate action plan in order to conserve water so that precious resource can be saved for today as well for future generations. 

Save Water Initiative

This initiative can help and promote the conservation of water . Also, it can be spread awareness among the people about the importance of water. Additionally, the save water campaign helps people realize that the sources of fresh and pure water are very limited. So, if it is overused that there are chances that they might not be able to fulfill the increasing demands of the population. Through this campaign, we can create awareness among the people about the benefits and preserving water and using it diligently.

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Wastewater Treatment and Reuse: a Review of its Applications and Health Implications

• Open access
• Published: 10 May 2021
• Volume 232 , article number  208 , ( 2021 )

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• Kavindra Kumar Kesari   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-3622-9555 1   na1 ,
• Ramendra Soni 2   na1 ,
• Qazi Mohammad Sajid Jamal 3 ,
• Pooja Tripathi 4 ,
• Jonathan A. Lal 2 ,
• Niraj Kumar Jha 5 ,
• Mohammed Haris Siddiqui 6 ,
• Pradeep Kumar 7 ,
• Vijay Tripathi 2 &
• Janne Ruokolainen 1  

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Water scarcity is one of the major problems in the world and millions of people have no access to freshwater. Untreated wastewater is widely used for agriculture in many countries. This is one of the world-leading serious environmental and public health concerns. Instead of using untreated wastewater, treated wastewater has been found more applicable and ecofriendly option. Moreover, environmental toxicity due to solid waste exposures is also one of the leading health concerns. Therefore, intending to combat the problems associated with the use of untreated wastewater, we propose in this review a multidisciplinary approach to handle wastewater as a potential resource for use in agriculture. We propose a model showing the efficient methods for wastewater treatment and the utilization of solid wastes in fertilizers. The study also points out the associated health concern for farmers, who are working in wastewater-irrigated fields along with the harmful effects of untreated wastewater. The consumption of crop irrigated by wastewater has leading health implications also discussed in this review paper. This review further reveals that our current understanding of the wastewater treatment and use in agriculture with addressing advancements in treatment methods has great future possibilities.

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1 Introduction

Rapidly depleting and elevating the level of freshwater demand, though wastewater reclamation or reuse is one of the most important necessities of the current scenario. Total water consumption worldwide for agriculture accounts 92% (Clemmens et al., 2008 ; Hoekstra & Mekonnen, 2012 ; Tanji & Kielen, 2002 ). Out of which about 70% of freshwater is used for irrigation (WRI, 2020 ), which comes from the rivers and underground water sources (Pedrero et al., 2010 ). The statistics shows serious concern for the countries facing water crisis. Shen et al. ( 2014 ) reported that 40% of the global population is situated in heavy water–stressed basins, which represents the water crisis for irrigation. Therefore, wastewater reuse in agriculture is an ideal resource to replace freshwater use in agriculture (Contreras et al., 2017 ). Treated wastewater is generally applied for non-potable purposes, like agriculture, land, irrigation, groundwater recharge, golf course irrigation, vehicle washing, toilet flushes, firefighting, and building construction activities. It can also be used for cooling purposes in thermal power plants (Katsoyiannis et al., 2017 ; Mohsen, 2004 ; Smith, 1995 ; Yang et al., 2017 ). At global level, treated wastewater irrigation supports agricultural yield and the livelihoods of millions of smallholder farmers (Sato et al., 2013 ). Global reuse of treated wastewater for agricultural purposes shows wide variability ranging from 1.5 to 6.6% (Sato et al., 2013 ; Ungureanu et al., 2018 ). More than 10% of the global population consumes agriculture-based products, which are cultivated by wastewater irrigation (WHO, 2006 ). Treated wastewater reuse has experienced very rapid growth and the volumes have been increased ~10 to 29% per year in Europe, the USA, China, and up to 41% in Australia (Aziz & Farissi, 2014 ). China stands out as the leading country in Asia for the reuse of wastewater with an estimated 1.3 M ha area including Vietnam, India, and Pakistan (Zhang & Shen, 2017 ). Presently, it has been estimated that, only 37.6% of the urban wastewater in India is getting treated (Singh et al., 2019 ). By utilizing 90% of reclaimed water, Israel is the largest user of treated wastewater for agriculture land irrigation (Angelakis & Snyder, 2015 ). The detail information related to the utilization of freshwater and treated wastewater is compiled in Table 1 .

Many low-income countries in Africa, Asia, and Latin America use untreated wastewater as a source of irrigation (Jiménez & Asano, 2008 ). On the other hand, middle-income countries, such as Tunisia, Jordan, and Saudi Arabia, use treated wastewater for irrigation (Al-Nakshabandi et al., 1997 ; Balkhair, 2016a ; Balkhair, 2016b ; Qadir et al., 2010 ; Sato et al., 2013 ).

Domestic water and treated wastewater contains various type of nutrients such as phosphorus, nitrogen, potassium, and sulfur, but the major amount of nitrogen and phosphorous available in wastewater can be easily accumulated by the plants, that’s why it is widely used for the irrigation (Drechsel et al., 2010 ; Duncan, 2009 ; Poustie et al., 2020 ; Sengupta et al., 2015 ). The rich availability of nutrients in reclaimed wastewater reduces the use of fertilizers, increases crop productivity, improves soil fertility, and at the same time, it may also decrease the cost of crop production (Chen et al., 2013 a; Jeong et al., 2016 ). The data of high nutritional values in treated wastewater is shown in Fig. 1 .

Nutrient concentrations (mg/L) of freshwater/wastewater (Yadav et al., 2002 )

Wastewater reuse for crop irrigation showed several health concerns (Ungureanu et al., 2020 ). Irrigation with the industrial wastewater either directly or mixing with domestic water showed higher risk (Chen et al., 2013). Risk factors are higher due to heavy metal and pathogens contamination because heavy metals are non-biodegradable and have a long biological half-life (Chaoua et al., 2019 ; WHO, 2006 ). It contains several toxic elements, i.e., Cu, Cr, Mn, Fe, Pb, Zn, and Ni (Mahfooz et al., 2020 ). These heavy metals accumulate in topsoil (at a depth of 20 cm) and sourcing through plant roots; they enter the human and animal body through leafy vegetables consumption and inhalation of contaminated soils (Mahmood et al., 2014 ). Therefore, health risk assessment of such wastewater irrigation is important especially in adults (Mehmood et al., 2019 ; Njuguna et al., 2019 ; Xiao et al., 2017 ). For this, an advanced wastewater treatment method should be applied before release of wastewater in the river, agriculture land, and soils. Therefore, this review also proposed an advance wastewater treatment model, which has been tasted partially at laboratory scale by Kesari and Behari ( 2008 ), Kesari et al. ( 2011a , b ), and Kumar et al. ( 2010 ).

For a decade, reuse of wastewater has also become one of the global health concerns linking to public health and the environment (Dang et al., 2019 ; Narain et al., 2020 ). The World Health Organization (WHO) drafted guidelines in 1973 to protect the public health by facilitating the conditions for the use of wastewater and excreta in agriculture and aquaculture (WHO, 1973 ). Later in 2005, the initial guidelines were drafted in the absence of epidemiological studies with minimal risk approach (Carr, 2005 ). Although, Adegoke et al. ( 2018 ) reviewed the epidemiological shreds of evidence and health risks associated with reuse of wastewater for irrigation. Wastewater or graywater reuse has adverse health risks associated with microbial hazards (i.e., infectious pathogens) and chemicals or pharmaceuticals exposures (Adegoke et al., 2016 ; Adegoke et al., 2017 ; Busgang et al., 2018 ; Marcussen et al., 2007 ; Panthi et al., 2019 ). Researchers have reported that the exposure to wastewater may cause infectious (helminth infection) diseases, which are linked to anemia and impaired physical and cognitive development (Amoah et al., 2018 ; Bos et al., 2010 ; Pham-Duc et al., 2014 ; WHO, 2006 ).

Owing to an increasing population and a growing imbalance in the demand and supply of water, the use of wastewater has been expected to increase in the coming years (World Bank, 2010 ). The use of treated wastewater in developed nations follows strict rules and regulations. However, the direct use of untreated wastewater without any sound regulatory policies is evident in developing nations, which leads to serious environmental and public health concerns (Dickin et al., 2016 ). Because of these issues, we present in this review, a brief discussion on the risk associated with the untreated wastewater exposures and advanced methods for its treatment, reuse possibilities of the treated wastewater in agriculture.

2 Environmental Toxicity of Untreated Wastewater

Treated wastewater carries larger applicability such as irrigation, groundwater recharge, toilet flushing, and firefighting. Municipal wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) are the major collection point for the different toxic elements, pathogenic microorganisms, and heavy metals. It collects wastewater from divergent sources like household sewage, industrial, clinical or hospital wastewater, and urban runoff (Soni et al., 2020 ). Alghobar et al. ( 2014 ) reported that grass and crops irrigated with sewage and treated wastewater are rich in heavy metals in comparison with groundwater (GW) irrigation. Although, heavy metals classified as toxic elements and listed as cadmium, lead, mercury, copper, and iron. An exceeding dose or exposures of these heavy metals could be hazardous for health (Duan et al., 2017 ) and ecological risks (Tytła, 2019 ). The major sources of these heavy metals come from drinking water. This might be due to the release of wastewater into river or through soil contamination reaches to ground water. Table 2 presenting the permissible limits of heavy metals presented in drinking water and its impact on human health after an exceeding the amount in drinking water, along with the route of exposure of heavy metals to human body.

Direct release in river or reuse of wastewater for irrigation purposes may create short-term implications like heavy metal and microbial contamination and pathogenic interaction in soil and crops. It has also long-term influence like soil salinity, which grows with regular use of untreated wastewater (Smith, 1995 ). Improper use of wastewater for irrigation makes it unsafe and environment threatening. Irrigation with several different types of wastewater, i.e., industrial effluents, municipal and agricultural wastewaters, and sewage liquid sludge transfers the heavy metals to the soil, which leads to accumulation in crops due to improper practices. This has been identified as a significant route of heavy metals into aquatic resources (Agoro et al., 2020 ). Hussain et al. ( 2019 ) investigated the concentration of heavy metals (except for Cd) was higher in the soil irrigated with treated wastewater (large-scale sewage treatment plant) than the normal ground water, also reported by Khaskhoussy et al. ( 2015 ).

In other words, irrigation with wastewater mitigates the quality of crops and enhances health risks. Excess amount of copper causes anemia, liver and kidney damage, vomiting, headache, and nausea in children (Bent & Bohm, 1995 ; Madsen et al., 1990 ; Salem et al., 2000 ). A higher concentration of arsenic may lead to bone and kidney cancer (Jarup, 2003 ) and results in osteopenia or osteoporosis (Puzas et al., 2004 ). Cadmium gives rise to musculoskeletal diseases (Fukushima et al., 1970 ), whereas mercury directly affects the nervous system (Azevedo et al., 2014 ).

3 Spread of Antibiotic Resistance

Currently, antibiotics are highly used for human disease treatment; however, uses in poultries, animal husbandries, biochemical industries, and agriculture are common practices these days. Extensive use and/or misuse of antibiotics have given rise to multi-resistant bacteria, which carry multiple resistance genes (Icgen & Yilmaz, 2014 ; Lv et al., 2015 ; Tripathi & Tripathi, 2017 ; Xu et al., 2017 ). These multidrug-resistant bacteria discharged through the sewage network and get collected into the wastewater treatment plants. Therefore, it can be inferred that the WWTPs serve as the hotspot of antibiotic-resistant bacteria (ARB) and antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs). Though, these antibiotic-resistant bacteria can be disseminated to the different bacterial species through the mobile genetic elements and horizontal gene transfer (Gupta et al., 2018 ). Previous studies indicated that certain pathogens might survive in wastewater, even during and after the treatment processes, including methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and vancomycin-resistant enterococci (VRE) (Börjesson et al., 2009 ; Caplin et al., 2008 ). The use of treated wastewater in irrigation provides favorable conditions for the growth and persistence of total coliforms and fecal coliforms (Akponikpe et al., 2011 ; Sacks & Bernstein, 2011 ). Furthermore, few studies have also reported the presence of various bacterial pathogens, such as Clostridium , Salmonella , Streptococci , Viruses, Protozoa, and Helminths in crops irrigated with treated wastewater (Carey et al., 2004 ; Mañas et al., 2009 ; Samie et al., 2009 ). Goldstein ( 2013 ) investigated the survival of ARB in secondary treated wastewater and proved that it causes serious health risks to the individuals, who are exposed to reclaimed water. The U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and the World Health Organization (WHO) have already declared the ARBs as the imminent hazard to human health. According to the list published by WHO, regarding the development of new antimicrobial agents, the ESKAPE ( Enterococcus faecium , S. aureus , Klebsiella pneumoniae , Acinetobacter baumannii , Pseudomonas aeruginosa , and Enterobacter species) pathogens were designated to be “priority status” as their occurrence in the food chain is considered as the potential and major threat for the human health (Tacconelli et al., 2018 ).

These ESKAPE pathogens have acquired the multi drug resistance mechanisms against oxazolidinones, lipopeptides, macrolides, fluoroquinolones, tetracyclines, β-lactams, β-lactam–β-lactamase inhibitor combinations, and even those antibiotics that are considered as the last line of defense, including carbapenems and glycopeptides (Giddins et al., 2017 ; Herc et al., 2017 ; Iguchi et al., 2016 ; Naylor et al., 2018 ; Zaman et al., 2017 ), by the means of genetic mutation and mobile genetic elements. These cluster of ESKAPE pathogens are mainly responsible for lethal nosocomial infections (Founou et al., 2017 ; Santajit & Indrawattana, 2016 ).

Due to the wide application of antibiotics in animal husbandry and inefficient capability of wastewater treatment plants, the multidrug-resistant bacteria such as tetracyclines, sulfonamides, β-lactam, aminoglycoside, colistin, and vancomycin in major are disseminated in the receiving water bodies, which ultimately results in the accumulation of ARGs in the irrigated crops (He et al., 2020 ).

4 Toxic Contaminations in Wastewater Impacting Human Health

The release of untreated wastewater into the river may pose serious health implications (König et al., 2017 ; Odigie, 2014 ; Westcot, 1997 ). It has been already discussed about the household and municipal sewage which contains a major amount of organic materials and pathogenic microorganisms and these infectious microorganisms are capable of spreading various diseases like typhoid, dysentery, diarrhea, vomiting, and malabsorption (Jia & Zhang, 2020 ; Numberger et al., 2019 ; Soni et al., 2020 ). Additionally, pharmaceutical industries also play a key role in the regulation and discharge of biologically toxic agents. The untreated wastewater also contains a group of contaminants, which are toxic to humans. These toxic contaminations have been classified into two major groups: (i) chemical contamination and (ii) microbial contamination.

4.1 Chemical Contamination

Mostly, various types of chemical compounds released from industries, tanneries, workshops, irrigated lands, and household wastewaters are responsible for several diseases. These contaminants can be organic materials, hydrocarbons, volatile compounds, pesticides, and heavy metals. Exposure to such contaminants may cause infectious diseases like chronic dermatoses and skin cancer, lung infection, and eye irritation. Most of them are non-biodegradable and intractable. Therefore, they can persist in the water bodies for a very long period and could be easily accumulated in our food chain system. Several pharmaceutical personal care products (PPCPs) and surfactants are available that may contain toxic compounds like nonylphenol, estrone, estradiol, and ethinylestradiol. These compounds are endocrine-disrupting chemicals (Bolong et al., 2009 ), and the existence of these compounds in the human body even in the trace amounts can be highly hazardous. Also, the occurrence of perfluorinated compounds (PFCs) in wastewater, which is toxic in nature, has been significantly reported worldwide (Templeton et al., 2009 ). Furthermore, PFCs cause severe health menaces like pre-eclampsia, birth defects, reduced human fertility (Webster, 2010 ), immunotoxicity (Dewitt et al., 2012 ), neurotoxicity (Lee & Viberg, 2013 ), and carcinogenesis (Bonefeld-Jorgensen et al., 2011 ).

4.2 Microbial Contamination

Researchers have reported serious health risks associated with the microbial contaminants in untreated wastewater. The diverse group of microorganisms causes severe health implications like campylobacteriosis, diarrhea, encephalitis, typhoid, giardiasis, hepatitis A, poliomyelitis, salmonellosis, and gastroenteritis (ISDH, 2009 ; Okoh et al., 2010 ). Few bacterial species like P. aeruginosa , Salmonella typhimurium , Vibrio cholerae , G. intestinales , Legionella spp., E. coli , Shigella sonnei have been reported for the spreading of waterborne diseases, and acute illness in human being (Craun et al., 2006 ; Craun et al., 2010 ). These aforementioned microorganisms may release in the environment from municipal sewage water network, animal husbandries, or hospitals and enter the food chain via public water supply systems.

5 Wastewater Impact on Agriculture

The agriculture sector is well known for the largest user of water, accounting for nearly 70% of global water usage (Winpenny et al., 2010 ). The fact that an estimated 20 million hectares worldwide are irrigated with wastewater suggests a major source for irrigation (Ecosse, 2001 ). However, maximum wastewater that is used for irrigation is untreated (Jiménez & Asano, 2008 ; Scott et al., 2004 ). Mostly in developing countries, partially treated or untreated wastewater is used for irrigation purpose (Scott et al., 2009 ). Untreated wastewater often contains a large range of chemical contaminants from waste sites, chemical wastes from industrial discharges, heavy metals, fertilizers, textile, leather, paper, sewage waste, food processing waste, and pesticides. World Health Organization (WHO) has warned significant health implications due to the direct use of wastewater for irrigation purposes (WHO, 2006 ). These contaminants pose health risks to communities (farmers, agricultural workers, their families, and the consumers of wastewater-irrigated crops) living in the proximity of wastewater sources and areas irrigated with untreated wastewater (Qadir et al., 2010 ). Wastewater also contains a wide variety of organic compounds. Some of them are toxic or cancer-causing and have harmful effects on an embryo (Jarup, 2003 ; Shakir et al., 2016 ). The pathway of untreated wastewater used in irrigation and associated health effects are shown in Fig. 2 .

Exposure pathway representing serious health concerns from wastewater-irrigated crops

Alternatively, in developing countries, due to the limited availability of treatment facilities, untreated wastewater is discharged into the existing waterbodies (Qadir et al., 2010 ). The direct use of wastewater in agriculture or irrigation obstructs the growth of natural plants and grasses, which in turn causes the loss of biodiversity. Shuval et al. ( 1985 ) reported one of the earliest evidences connecting to agricultural wastewater reuse with the occurrence of diseases. Application of untreated wastewater in irrigation increases soil salinity, land sealing followed by sodium accumulation, which results in soil erosion. Increased soil salinity and sodium accumulation deteriorates the soil and decreases the soil permeability, which inhibits the nutrients intake of crops from the soil. These causes have been considered the long-term impact of wastewater reuse in agriculture (Halliwell et al., 2001 ). Moreover, wastewater contaminated soils are a major source of intestinal parasites (helminths—nematodes and tapeworms) that are transmitted through the fecal–oral route (Toze, 1997 ). Already known, the helminth infections are linked to blood deficiency and behavioral or cognitive development (Bos et al., 2010 ). One of the major sources of helminth infections around the world is the use of raw or partially treated sewage effluent and sludge for the irrigation of food crops (WHO, 1989 ). Wastewater-irrigated crops contain heavy metal contamination, which originates from mining, foundries, and metal-based industries (Fazeli et al., 1998 ). Exposure to heavy metals including arsenic, cadmium, lead, and mercury in wastewater-irrigated crops is a cause for various health problems. For example, the consumption of high amounts of cadmium causes osteoporosis in humans (Dickin et al., 2016 ). The uptake of heavy metals by the rice crop irrigated with untreated effluent from a paper mill has been reported to cause serious health concerns (Fazeli et al., 1998 ). Irrigating rice paddies with highly contaminated water containing heavy metals leads to the outbreak of Itai-itai disease in Japan (Jarup, 2003 ).

Owing to these widespread health risks, the WHO published the third edition of its guidelines for the safe use of wastewater in irrigating crops (WHO, 2006 ) and made recommendations for threshold contaminant levels in wastewater. The quality of wastewater for agricultural reuse have been classified based on the availability of nutrients, trace elements, microorganisms, and chemicals contamination levels. The level of contamination differs widely depending on the type of source, household sewage, pharmaceutical, chemical, paper, or textile industries effluents. The standard measures of water quality for irrigation are internationally reported (CCREM, 1987 ; FAO, 1985 ; FEPA, 1991 ; US EPA, 2004 , 2012 ; WHO, 2006 ), where the recommended levels of trace elements, metals, COD, BOD, nitrogen, and phosphorus are set at certain limits. Researchers reviewed the status of wastewater reuse for agriculture, based on its standards and guidelines for water quality (Angelakis et al., 1999 ; Brissaud, 2008 ; Kalavrouziotis et al., 2015 ). Based on these recommendations and guidelines, it is evident that greater awareness is required for the treatment of wastewater safely.

6 Wastewater Treatment Techniques

6.1 primary treatment.

This initial step is designed to remove gross, suspended and floating solids from raw wastewater. It includes screening to trap solid objects and sedimentation by gravity to remove suspended solids. This physical solid/liquid separation is a mechanical process, although chemicals can be used sometimes to accelerate the sedimentation process. This phase of the treatment reduces the BOD of the incoming wastewater by 20–30% and the total suspended solids by nearly 50–60%.

6.2 Secondary (Biological) Treatment

This stage helps eliminate the dissolved organic matter that escapes primary treatment. Microbes consume the organic matter as food, and converting it to carbondioxide, water, and energy for their own growth. Additional settling to remove more of the suspended solids then follows the biological process. Nearly 85% of the suspended solids and biological oxygen demand (BOD) can be removed with secondary treatment. This process also removes carbonaceous pollutants that settle down in the secondary settling tank, thus separating the biological sludge from the clear water. This sludge can be fed as a co-substrate with other wastes in a biogas plant to obtain biogas, a mixture of CH 4 and CO 2 . It generates heat and electricity for further energy distribution. The leftover, clear water is then processed for nitrification or denitrification for the removal of carbon and nitrogen. Furthermore, the water is passed through a sedimentation basin for treatment with chlorine. At this stage, the water may still contain several types of microbial, chemical, and metal contaminations. Therefore, to make the water reusable, e.g., for irrigation, it further needs to pass through filtration and then into a disinfection tank. Here, sodium hypochlorite is used to disinfect the wastewater. After this process, the treated water is considered safe to use for irrigation purposes. Solid wastes generated during primary and secondary treatment processes are processed further in the gravity-thickening tank under a continuous supply of air. The solid waste is then passed into a centrifuge dewatering tank and finally to a lime stabilization tank. Treated solid waste is obtained at this stage and it can be processed further for several uses such as landfilling, fertilizers and as a building.

Other than the activated sludge process of wastewater treatment, there are several other methods developed and being used in full-scale reactors such as ponds (aerobic, anaerobic, facultative, and maturation), trickling filters, anaerobic treatments like up-flow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB) reactors, artificial wetlands, microbial fuel cells, and methanogenic reactors.

UASB reactors are being applied for wastewater treatment from a very long period. Behling et al. ( 1996 ) examined the performance of the UASB reactor without any external heat supply. In their study, the COD loading rate was maintained at 1.21 kg COD/m 3 /day, after 200 days of trial. They achieved an average of 85% of COD removal. Von-Sperling and Chernicharo ( 2005 ) presented a combined model consisted of an Up-flow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket-Activated Sludge reactor (UASB–AS system), using the low strength domestic wastewater with a BOD 5 amounting to 340 mg/l. Outcomes of their experiment have shown a 60% reduction in sludge construction and a 40% reduction in aeration energy consumption. In another experiment, Rizvi et al. ( 2015 ) seeded UASB reactor with cow manure dung to treat domestic wastewater; they observed 81%, 75%, and 76% reduction in COD, TSS, and total sulfate removal, respectively, in their results.

6.3 Tertiary or Advanced Treatment Processes

The tertiary treatment process is employed when specific constituents, substances, or contaminants cannot be completely removed after the secondary treatment process. The tertiary treatment processes, therefore, ensure that nearly 99% of all impurities are removed from wastewater. To make the treated water safe for drinking purposes, water is treated individually or in combination with advanced methods like the US (ultrasonication), UV (ultraviolet light treatment), and O 3 (exposure to ozone). This process helps to remove bacteria and heavy metal contaminations remaining in the treated water. For the purpose, the secondarily treated water is first made to undergo ultrasonication and it is subsequently exposed to UV light and passed through an ozone chamber for the complete removal of contaminations. The possible mechanisms by which cells are rendered inviable during the US include free-radical attack and physical disruption of cell membranes (Phull et al., 1997 ; Scherba et al., 1991 ). The combined treatment of US + UV + O 3 produces free radicals, which are attached to cell membranes of the biological contaminants. Once the cell membrane is sheared, chemical oxidants can enter the cell and attack internal structures. Thus, the US alone or in combination facilitates the deagglomeration of microorganisms and increases the efficiency of other chemical disinfectants (Hua & Thompson, 2000 ; Kesari et al., 2011a , b ; Petrier et al., 1992 ; Phull et al., 1997 ; Scherba et al., 1991 ). A combined treatment method was also considered by Pesoutova et al. ( 2011 ) and reported a very effective method for textile wastewater treatment. The effectiveness of ultrasound application as a pre-treatment step in combination with ultraviolet rays (Blume & Neis, 2004 ; Naddeo et al., 2009 ), or also compared it with various other combinations of both ultrasound and UV radiation with TiO 2 photocatalysis (Paleologou et al., 2007 ), and ozone (Jyoti & Pandit, 2004 ) to optimize wastewater disinfection process.

An important aspect of our wastewater treatment model (Fig. 3 ) is that at each step of the treatment process, we recommend the measurement of the quality of treated water. After ensuring that the proper purification standards are met, the treated water can be made available for irrigation, drinking or other domestic uses.

A wastewater treatment schematic highlighting the various methods that result in a progressively improved quality of the wastewater from the source to the intended use of the treated wastewater for irrigation purposes

6.4 Nanotechnology as Tertiary Treatment of Wastewater Converting Drinking Water Alike

Considering the emerging trends of nanotechnology, nanofillers can be used as a viable method for the tertiary treatment of wastewater. Due to the very small pore size, 1–5-nm nanofillers may eliminate the organic–inorganic pollutants, heavy metals, as well as pathogenic microorganisms and pharmaceutically active compounds (PhACs) (Mohammad et al., 2015 ; Vergili, 2013 ). Over the recent years, nanofillers have been largely accepted in the textile industry for the treatment of pulp bleaching pharmaceutical industry, dairy industry, microbial elimination, and removal of heavy metals from wastewater (Abdel-Fatah, 2018 ). Srivastava et al. ( 2004 ) synthesized very efficient and reusable water filters from carbon nanotubes, which exhibited effective elimination of bacterial pathogens ( E. coli and S. aureus ), and Poliovirus sabin-1 from wastewater.

Nanofiltration requires lower operating pressure and lesser energy consumption in comparison of RO and higher rejection of organic compounds compared to UF. Therefore, it can be applied as the tertiary treatment of wastewater (Abdel-Fatah, 2018 ). Apart from nanofilters, there are various kinds of nanoparticles like metal nanoparticles, metal oxide nanoparticles, carbon nanotubes, graphene nanosheets, and polymer-based nanosorbents, which may play a different role in wastewater treatment based on their properties. Kocabas et al. ( 2012 ) analyzed the potential of different metal oxide nanoparticles and observed that nanopowders of TiO 2 , FeO 3 , ZnO 2 , and NiO can exhibit the exceeding amount of removal of arsenate from wastewater. Cadmium contamination in wastewater, which poses a serious health risk, can be overcome by using ZnO nanoparticles (Kumar & Chawla, 2014 ). Latterly, Vélez et al. ( 2016 ) investigated that the 70% removal of mercury from wastewater through iron oxide nanoparticles successfully performed. Sheet et al. ( 2014 ) used graphite oxide nanoparticles for the removal of nickel from wastewater. An exceeding amount of copper causes liver cirrhosis, anemia, liver, and kidney damage, which can be removed by carbon nanotubes, pyromellitic acid dianhydride (PMDA) and phenyl aminomethyl trimethoxysilane (PAMTMS) (Liu et al., 2010 ).

Nanomaterials are efficiently being used for microbial purification from wastewater. Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are broadly applied for the treatment of wastewater contaminated with E. coli , Salmonella , and a wide range of microorganisms (Akasaka & Watari, 2009 ). In addition, silver nanoparticles reveal very effective results against the microorganisms present in wastewater. Hence, it is extensively being used for microbial elimination from wastewater (Inoue et al., 2002 ). Moreover, CNTs exhibit high binding affinity to bacterial cells and possess magnetic properties (Pan & Xing, 2008 ). Melanta ( 2008 ) confirmed and recommended the applicability of CNTs for the removal of E. coli contamination from wastewater. Mostafaii et al. ( 2017 ) suggested that the ZnO nanoparticles could be the potential antibacterial agent for the removal of total coliform bacteria from municipal wastewater. Apart from the previously mentioned, applicability of the nanotechnology, the related drawbacks and challenges cannot be neglected. Most of the nanoengineered techniques are currently either in research scale or pilot scale performing well (Gehrke et al., 2015 ). Nevertheless, as discussed above, nanotechnology and nanomaterials exhibit exceptional properties for the removal of contaminants and purification of water. Therefore, it can be adapted as the prominent solution for the wastewater treatment (Zekić et al., 2018 ) and further use for drinking purposes.

6.5 Wastewater Treatment by Using Plant Species

Some of the naturally growing plants can be a potential source for wastewater treatment as they remove pollutants and contaminants by utilizing them as a nutrient source (Zimmels et al., 2004 ). Application of plant species in wastewater treatment may be cost-effective, energy-saving, and provides ease of operation. At the same time, it can be used as in situ, where the wastewater is being produced (Vogelmann et al., 2016 ). Nizam et al. ( 2020 ) analyzed the phytoremediation efficiency of five plant species ( Centella asiatica , Ipomoea aquatica , Salvinia molesta , Eichhornia crassipes , and Pistia stratiotes ) and achieved the drastic decrease in the amount of three pollutants viz. total suspended solids (TSS), ammoniacal nitrogen (NH 3 -N), and phosphate levels . All the five species found to be efficient removal of the level of 63.9-98% of NH 3 -N, TSS, and phosphate. Coleman et al. ( 2001 ) examined the physiological effects of domestic wastewater treatment by three common Appalachian plant species: common rush or soft rush ( Juncus effuses L.), gray club-rush ( Scirpus Validus L.), and broadleaf cattail or bulrush ( Typha latifolia L.). They observed in their experiments about 70% of reduction in total suspended solids (TSS) and biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), 50% to 60% of reduction in nitrogen, ammonia, and phosphate levels, and a significant reduction in feacal coliform populations. Whereas, Zamora et al. ( 2019 ) found the removal efficiency of chemical oxygen demand (COD), total solids suspended (TSS), nitrogen as ammonium (N-NH 4 ) and nitrate (N-NO 3 ), and phosphate (P-PO 4 ) up to 20–60% higher using the three ornamental species of plants viz. Canna indica , Cyperus papyrus , and Hedychium coronarium . The list of various plant species applied for the wastewater treatment is shown in Table 3 .

6.6 Wastewater Treatment by Using Microorganisms

There is a diverse group of bacteria like Pseudomonas fluorescens , Pseudomonas putida , and different Bacillus strains, which are capable to use in biological wastewater systems. These bacteria work in the cluster forms as a floc, biofilm, or granule during the wastewater treatment. Furthermore, after the recognition of bacterial exopolysaccharides (EPS) as an efficient adsorption material, it may be applied in a revolutionary manner for the heavy metal elimination (Gupta & Diwan, 2017 ). There are few examples of EPS, which are commercially available, i.e., alginate ( P. aeruginosa , Azotobacter vinelandii ), gellan (Sphingomonas paucimobilis ), hyaluronan ( . aeruginosa , Pasteurella multocida , Streptococci attenuated strains ), xanthan (Xanthomonas campestris ), and galactopol ( Pseudomonas oleovorans ) (Freitas et al., 2009 ; Freitas, Alves, & Reis, 2011a ; Freitas, Alves, Torres, et al., 2011b ). Similarly, Hesnawi et al. ( 2014 ) experimented biodegradation of municipal wastewater using local and commercial bacteria (Sludge Hammer), where they achieved a significant decrease in synthetic wastewater, i.e., 70%, 54%, 52%, 42% for the Sludge Hammer, B. subtilis , B. laterosponus , and P. aeruginosa , respectively. Therefore, based on the above studies, it can be concluded that bioaugmentation of wastewater treatment reactor with selective and mixed strains can ameliorate the treatment. During recent years, microalgae have attracted the attention of researchers as an alternative system, due to their applicability in wastewater treatment. Algae are the unicellular or multicellular photosynthetic microorganism that grows on water surfaces, salt water, or moist soil. They utilize the exceeding amount of nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorus, and carbon for their growth and metabolism process through their anaerobic system. This property of algae also inhibits eutrophication; that is to avoid over-deposit of nutrients in water bodies. During the nutrient digestion process, algae produce oxygen that is constructive for the heterotrophic aerobic bacteria, which may further be utilized to degrade the organic and inorganic pollutants. Kim et al. ( 2014 ) observed a total decrease in the levels of COD (86%), total nitrogen (93%), and total phosphorus (83%) after using algae in the municipal wastewater consortium. Nmaya et al. ( 2017 ) reported the heavy metal removal efficiency of microalga Scenedesmus sp. from contaminated river water in the Melaka River, Malaysia. They observed the effective removal of Zn (97-99%) on the 3 rd and 7 th day of the experiment. The categorized list of microorganisms used for wastewater treatment is presented in Table 4 .

7 The Computational Approach in Wastewater Treatment

7.1 bioinformatics and genome sequencing.

A computational approach is accessible in wastewater treatment. Several tools and techniques are in use such as, sequencing platforms (Hall, 2007 ; Marsh, 2007 ), metagenome sequencing strategies (Schloss & Handelsman, 2005 ; Schmeisser et al., 2007 ; Tringe et al., 2005 ), bioinformatics tools and techniques (Chen & Pachter, 2005 ; Foerstner et al., 2006 ; Raes et al., 2007 ), and the genome analysis of complex microbial communities (Fig. 4 ). Most of the biological database contains microorganisms and taxonomical information. Thus, these can provide extensive details and supports for further utilization in wastewater treatment–related research and development (Siezen & Galardini, 2008 ). Balcom et al. ( 2016 ) explored that the microbial population residing in the plant roots immersed in the wastewater of an ecological WWTP and showed the evidence of the capacity for micro-pollutant biodegradation using whole metagenome sequencing (WMS). Similarly, Kumar et al. ( 2016 ) revealed that bioremediation of highly polluted wastewater from textile dyes by two novel strains were found to highly decolorize Joyfix Red. They were identified as Lysinibacillus sphaericus (KF032717) and Aeromonas hydrophila (KF032718) through 16S rDNA analysis. More recently, Leddy et al. ( 2018 ) reported that research scientists are making strides to advance the safety and application of potable water reuse with metagenomics for water quality analysis. The application of the bio-computational approach has also been implemented in the advancements of wastewater treatment and disease detection.

A schematic showing the overall conceptual framework on which depicting the computational approach in wastewater treatment

7.2 Computational Fluid Dynamics in Wastewater Treatment

In recent years, computational fluid dynamics (CFD), a broadly used method, has been applied to biological wastewater treatment. It has exposed the inner flow state that is the hydraulic condition of a biological reactor (Peng et al., 2014 ). CFD is the application of powerful predictive modeling and simulation tools. It may calculate the multiple interactions between all the water quality and process design parameters. CFD modeling tools have already been widely used in other industries, but their application in the water industry is quite recent. CFD modeling has great applications in water and wastewater treatment, where it mechanically works by using hydrodynamic and mass transfer performance of single or two-phase flow reactors (Do-Quang et al., 1998 ). The level of CFD’s capability varies between different process units. It has a high frequency of application in the areas of final sedimentation, activated sludge basin modeling, disinfection, and greater needs in primary sedimentation and anaerobic digestion (Samstag et al., 2016 ). Now, researchers are enhancing the CFD modeling with a developed 3D model of the anoxic zone to evaluate further hydrodynamic performance (Elshaw et al., 2016 ). The overall conceptual framework and the applications of the computational approach in wastewater treatment are presented in Fig. 4 .

7.3 Computational Artificial Intelligence Approach in Wastewater Treatment

Several studies were obtained by researchers to implement computer-based artificial techniques, which provide fast and rapid automated monitoring of water quality tests such as BOD and COD. Recently, Nourani et al. ( 2018 ) explores the possibility of wastewater treatment plant by using three different kinds of artificial intelligence methods, i.e., feedforward neural network (FFNN), adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system (ANFIS), and support vector machine (SVM). Several measurements were done in terms of effluent to tests BOD, COD, and total nitrogen in the Nicosia wastewater treatment plant (NWWTP) and reported high-performance efficiency of artificial intelligence (Nourani et al., 2018 ).

7.4 Remote sensing and Geographical Information System

Since the implementation of satellite technology, the initiation of new methods and tools became popular nowadays. The futuristic approach of remote sensing and GIS technology plays a crucial role in the identification and locating of the water polluted area through satellite imaginary and spatial data. GIS analysis may provide a quick and reasonable solution to develop atmospheric correction methods. Moreover, it provides a user-friendly environment, which may support complex spatial operations to get the best quality information on water quality parameters through remote sensing (Ramadas & Samantaray, 2018 ).

8 Applications of Treated Wastewater

8.1 scope in crop irrigation.

Several studies have assessed the impact of the reuse of recycled/treated wastewater in major sectors. These are agriculture, landscapes, public parks, golf course irrigation, cooling water for power plants and oil refineries, processing water for mills, plants, toilet flushing, dust control, construction activities, concrete mixing, and artificial lakes (Table 5 ). Although the treated wastewater after secondary treatment is adequate for reuse since the level of heavy metals in the effluent is similar to that in nature (Ayers & Westcot, 1985 ), experimental evidences have been found and evaluated the effects of irrigation with treated wastewater on soil fertility and chemical characteristics, where it has been concluded that secondary treated wastewater can improve soil fertility parameters (Mohammad & Mazahreh, 2003 ). The proposed model (Fig. 3 ) is tested partially previously at a laboratory scale by treating the wastewater (from sewage, sugar, and paper industry) in an ultrasonic bath (Kesari et al., 2011a , b ; Kesari & Behari, 2008 ; Kumar et al., 2010 ). Advancing it with ultraviolet and ozone treatment has modified this in the proposed model. A recent study shows that the treated water passed quality measures suited for crop irrigation (Bhatnagar et al., 2016 ). In Fig. 3 , a model is proposed including all three (UV, US, nanoparticle, and ozone) techniques, which have been tested individually as well as in combination (US and nanoparticle) (Kesari et al., 2011a , b ) to obtain the highest water quality standards acceptable for irrigation and even drinking purposes.

A wastewater-irrigated field is a major source of essential and non-essential metals contaminants such as lead, copper, zinc, boron, cobalt, chromium, arsenic, molybdenum, and manganese. While crops need some of these, the others are non-essential metals, toxic to plants, animals, and humans. Kanwar and Sandha ( 2000 ) reported that heavy metal concentrations in plants grown in wastewater-irrigated soils were significantly higher than in plants grown in the reference soil in their study. Yaqub et al. ( 2012 ) suggest that the use of US is very effective in removing heavy or toxic metals and organic pollutants from industrial wastewater. However, it has been also observed that the metals were removed efficiently, when UV light was combined with ozone (Samarghandi et al., 2007 ). Ozone exposure is a potent method for the removal of metal or toxic compounds from wastewater as also reported earlier (Park et al., 2008 ). Application of US, UV, and O 3 in combination lead to the formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) that oxidize certain organics, metal ions and kill pathogens. In the process of advanced oxidizing process (AOP) primarily oxidants, electricity, light, catalysts etc. are implied to produce extremely reactive free radicals (such as OH) for the breakdown of organic matters (Oturan & Aaron, 2014 ). Among the other AOPs, ozone oxidization process is more promising and effective for the decomposition of complex organic contaminants (Xu et al., 2020 ). Ozone oxidizes the heavy metal to their higher oxidation state to form metallic oxides or hydroxides in which they generally form limited soluble oxides and gets precipitated, which are easy to be filtered by filtration process. Ozone oxidization found to be efficient for the removal of heavy metals like cadmium, chromium, cobalt, copper, lead, manganese, nickel, and zinc from the water source (Upadhyay & Srivastava, 2005 ). Ultrasonic-treated sludge leads to the disintegration of biological cells and kills bacteria in treated wastewater (Kesari, Kumar, et al., 2011a ; Kesari, Verma, & Behari, 2011b ). This has been found that combined treatment with ultrasound and nanoparticles is more effective (Kesari, Kumar, et al., 2011a ). Ultrasonication has the physical effects of cavitation inactivate and lyse bacteria (Broekman et al., 2010 ). The induced effect of US, US, or ozone may destroy the pathogens and especially during ultrasound irradiation including free-radical attack, hydroxyl radical attack, and physical disruption of cell membranes (Kesari, Kumar, et al., 2011a ; Phull et al., 1997 ; Scherba et al., 1991 ).

8.2 Energy and Economy Management

Municipal wastewater treatment plants play a major role in wastewater sanitation and public health protection. However, domestic wastewater has been considered as a resource or valuable products instead of waste, because it has been playing a significant role in the recovery of energy and resource for the plant-fertilizing nutrients like phosphorus and nitrogen. Use of domestic wastewater is widely accepted for the crop irrigation in agriculture and industrial consumption to avoid the water crisis. It has also been found as a source of energy through the anaerobic conversion of the organic content of wastewater into methane gas. However, most of the wastewater treatment plants are using traditional technology, as anaerobic sludge digestion to treat wastewater, which results in more consumption of energy. Therefore, through these conventional technologies, only a fraction of the energy of wastewater has been captured. In order to solve these issues, the next generation of municipal wastewater treatment plants is approaching total retrieval of the energy potential of water and nutrients, mostly nitrogen and phosphorus. These plants also play an important role in the removal and recovery of emerging pollutants and valuable products of different nature like heavy and radioactive metals, fertilizers hormones, and pharma compounds. Moreover, there are still few possibilities of improvement in wastewater treatment plants to retrieve and reuse of these compounds. There are several methods under development to convert the organic matter into bioenergy such as biohydrogen, biodiesel, bioethanol, and microbial fuel cell. These methods are capable to produce electricity from wastewater but still need an appropriate development. Energy development through wastewater is a great driver to regulate the wastewater energy because it produces 10 times more energy than chemical, thermal, and hydraulic forms. Vermicomposting can be utilized for stabilization of sludge from the wastewater treatment plant. Kesari and Jamal ( 2017 ) have reported the significant, economical, and ecofriendly role of the vermicomposting method for the conversion of solid waste materials into organic fertilizers as presented in Fig. 5 . Solid waste may come from several sources of municipal and industrial sludge, for example, textile industry, paper mill, sugarcane, pulp industry, dairy, and intensively housed livestock. These solid wastes or sewage sludges have been treated successfully by composting and/or vermicomposting (Contreras-Ramos et al., 2005 ; Elvira et al., 1998 ; Fraser-Quick, 2002 ; Ndegwa & Thompson, 2001 ; Sinha et al., 2010 ) Although collection of solid wastes materials from sewage or wastewater and further drying is one of the important concerns, processing of dried municipal sewage sludge (Contreras-Ramos et al., 2005 ) and management (Ayilara et al., 2020 ) for vermicomposting could be possible way of generating organic fertilizers for future research. Vermicomposting of household solid wastes, agriculture wastes, or pulp and sugarcane industry wastes shows greater potential as fertilizer for higher crop yielding (Bhatnagar et al., 2016 ; Kesari & Jamal, 2017 ). The higher amount of solid waste comes from agricultural land and instead of utilizing it, this biomass is processed by burning, which causes severe diseases (Kesari & Jamal, 2017 ). Figure 3 shows the proper utilization of solid waste after removal from wastewater; however, Fig. 5 showing greater possibility in fertilizer conversion which has also been discussed in detail elsewhere (Bhatnagar et al., 2016 ; Nagavallemma et al., 2006 )

Energy production through wastewater (reproduced from Bhatnagar et al., 2016 ; Kesari & Jamal, 2017 )

9 Conclusions and future perspectives

In this paper, we have reviewed environmental and public health issues associated with the use of untreated wastewater in agriculture. We have focused on the current state of affairs concerning the wastewater treatment model and computational approach. Given the dire need for holistic approaches for cultivation, we proposed the ideas to tackle the issues related to wastewater treatment and the reuse potential of the treated water. Water resources are under threat because of the growing population. Increasing generation of wastewater (municipal, industrial, and agricultural) in developing countries especially in India and other Asian countries has the potential to serve as an alternative of freshwater resources for reuse in rice agriculture, provide appropriate treatment, and distribution measures are adopted. Wastewater treatment is one of the big challenges for many countries because increasing levels of undesired or unknown pollutants are very harmful to health as well as environment. Therefore, this review explores the ideas based on current and future research. Wastewater treatment includes very traditional methods by following primary, secondary, and tertiary treatment procedures, but the implementation of advanced techniques is always giving us a big possibility of good water quality. In this paper, we have proposed combined methods for the wastewater treatment, where the concept of the proposed model works on the various types of wastewater effluents. The proposed model not only useful for wastewater treatment but also for the utilization of solid wastes as fertilizer. An appropriate method for the treatment of wastewater and further utilization for drinking water is the main futuristic outcome. It is also highly recommendable to follow the standard methods and available guidelines provided WHO. In this paper, the proposed role of the computational model, i.e., artificial intelligence, fluid dynamics, and GIS, in wastewater treatment could be useful in future studies. In this review, health concerns associated with wastewater irrigation for farmers and irrigated crops consumers have been discussed.

The crisis of freshwater is one of the growing concerns in the twenty-first century. Globaly, about 330 km 3 of municipal wastewater is generated annually (Hernández-Sancho et al., 2015 ). This data provides a better understanding of why the reuse of treated wastewater is important to solve the issues of the water crisis. The use of treated wastewater (industrial or municipal wastewater or Seawater) for irrigation has a better future for the fulfillment of water demand. Currently, in developing countries, farmers are using wastewater directly for irrigation, which may cause several health issues for both farmers and consumers (crops or vegetables). Therefore, it is very imperative to implement standard and advanced methods for wastewater treatment. A local assessment of the environmental and health impacts of wastewater irrigation is required because most of the developed and developing countries are not using the proper guidelines. Therefore, it is highly required to establish concrete policies and practices to encourage safe water reuse to take advantage of all its potential benefits in agriculture and for farmers.

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Acknowledgements

All the authors are highly grateful to the authority of the respective departments and institutions for their support in doing this research. The author VT would like to thank Science & Engineering Research Board, New Delhi, India (Grant #ECR/2017/001809). The Author RS is thankful to the University Grants Commission for the National Fellowship (201819-NFO-2018-19-OBC-UTT-78476).

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Kavindra Kumar Kesari and Ramendra Soni contributed equally to this work.

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Department of Applied Physics, Aalto University, Espoo, Finland

Kavindra Kumar Kesari & Janne Ruokolainen

Department of Molecular and Cellular Engineering, Sam Higginbottom University of Agriculture, Technology and Sciences, Naini, Allahabad, India

Ramendra Soni, Jonathan A. Lal & Vijay Tripathi

Department of Health Informatics, College of Public Health and Health Informatics, Qassim University, Al Bukayriyah, Saudi Arabia

Qazi Mohammad Sajid Jamal

Department of Computational Biology and Bioinformatics, Sam Higginbottom University of Agriculture, Technology and Sciences, Naini, Allahabad, India

Pooja Tripathi

Department of Biotechnology, School of Engineering & Technology, Sharda University, Greater Noida, UP, India

Niraj Kumar Jha

Department of Bioengineering, Faculty of Engineering, Integral University, Lucknow, India

Mohammed Haris Siddiqui

Department of Forestry, NERIST, Nirjuli, Arunachal Pradesh, India

Pradeep Kumar

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Kesari, K.K., Soni, R., Jamal, Q.M.S. et al. Wastewater Treatment and Reuse: a Review of its Applications and Health Implications. Water Air Soil Pollut 232 , 208 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-021-05154-8

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Effects of Wastage of Water

The effects of wastage of water are very dire. Many places around the world have no easy access to safe potable water. Furthermore, the cost of desalination and making water potable is constantly increasing.

Wasting of water also have a disastrous effect on the ecosystem. If towns or cities use water from aquatic environments, and if these are not replenished, then the local species which live in these environments may die. In places where water is scarce, any wastage limits the water available for the needs of other people.

What are the Effects of Wasting Water?

There are many noticeable effects of wasting water. A few of them are:

• Wasting water may limit its availability to other communities, especially in areas where water shortage is common.
• An arid ecosystem may suffer when water is wasted. This wasted water could have been better used elsewhere.
• Excess energy will be used in sewage treatment plants to treat wasted water.
• Wasting water is also an economic burden. It takes many resources and processes to purify and make water potable.

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Good Example Of Water Wastage Essay

Type of paper: Essay

Topic: Literature , Government , Politics , Economics , Future , Water , Life , Infrastructure

Published: 05/17/2021

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In the article “Transferring Water from Agricultural to Urban Use Is Beneficial” Robert Glennon discusses the dilemma faced by the people of US regarding the scarcity of water. The author draws attention towards the reduction of clean water supply in the rivers, and possibly suggests that if this issue is not given attention people would not have clean water. Glennon proposed five options that may help satisfy the increasing water demand. The first option is diversion of water, but the problem with this option is that most water is unendurable. The second option suggests that construction of more dams should become a priority. Through the second option, the people would have water at times of shortage. However, the increase in dams’ construction had a negative impact upon the scenery of the country’s renowned places such as the beautiful canyons of the West.

According to Glennon, the third option of, recycling sewerage water has been made possible because of the improved technology available. Sewerage water is now reusable if it is adequately treated in a water clarification plant. Effluent water is most suitable for farmers as it provides a form of healthy growth of certain crops. The fourth option to conserve water is to levy government regulations and limit the quantity of water consumption by people. Moreover, the author also suggests that water should become a charged commodity, as people are reluctant to waste anything for which they have to pay an additional amount.

Glennon provides a fifth option of water reallocation as a future strategy. Through reallocation of water people would be able to prioritize their water needs; thus, reducing wastage. Even though, the reallocation system may bring about resentment from several parties, but it would help determine the worth of water to specific groups. The author argues that people tend to value thing they possess; therefore, if people have to buy water they would make wise decisions and promote efficiency in the economy. Robert Glennon stresses upon the government to intervene if the fifth option is put into practice. The government must ensure that economic or environmental harm is minimized during the reallocation process so that the benefit gained is maximized.

Charles Fishman in his article “People Must Learn Not to Take Water for Granted” discusses the flaw of the system that has made people believe that water is an abundant resource. The concept that water will never fall short, has contributed towards people being insensitive to the water scarcity dilemma. Fishman has discussed the previous era and the use of water then along with the present scenario and future implications. The author suggests that people need to take their relationship with water seriously, similar to other relationships which exist in their lives. As life without water is almost unimaginable people should give greater importance towards understanding and implementing ways of minimizing the wastage of this scarce resource.

One of the most major sources of water wastage is the leakage of water through several channels. Fishman indicated that 16 percent of water does not reach the final destination because it gets wasted in the process through leakage at some point. Fishman draws attention to the evolved nature of water supply compared to the early twentieth century. Water filtration plants have changed the way people look at water and are the major contributors towards the convenience of water availability. According to the author, because increasingly cities are located near water plants people have begun to take water for granted. Initially, people had to walk miles to get access to clean water, but today this trend has declined significantly.

Charles Fishman has proved that water shortage can be overcome, by showing statistics that suggest that the use of water in US has declined even though the population has increased. As there are efficient production systems in place, the water is rationed efficiently. The major source of water wastage is from households, and people need to realize the importance of water because that is the only way they would use it carefully.

In the article “Water and Poverty, An Issue of Life and Livelihood” it is suggested that water is a core requirement for a healthy life. As populations around the world are increasing, the stress on clean water resources is increasing. People are fighting for clean water as they want to sustain life in their particular economy. Development is increasing but so is population; therefore, the pressure on water availability has also intensified. According to reports, by 2025 people living in rural areas would struggle to get access to clean water resources. Urban areas are exploiting water resources and ensuring their citizens have uninterrupted access to water. On the other hand, third world countries and rural areas are barely meeting their clean water requirements.

Water scarcity is solvable if actions are taken at local, national, and international levels. Countries and territories should keep aside their differences and come together to ensure an uninterrupted supply of water for its people. It would require legislative and political action in order to ensure water supply is fair to all nations. Developmental projects should not over power the water needs of local residents. In other words, governments should learn how to prioritize the water supply because the health of people is most important. There should be no discrimination amongst the poor and rich as far as clean water is concerned. People should have equal access to clean water regardless of their race or financial status. If water is to be made available in the long term, people need to revise their habits and ensure that water wastage is minimized as much as possible.

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Divert Great Lakes Water to California?

More from our inbox:.

• Feeling Hopeful After Years of Dread
• No Comparison Between Medals
• Let’s Nix ‘No Problem’

To the Editor:

Re “ Pipe the Great Lakes to California? We Might Have To ,” by Jay Famiglietti (Opinion guest essay, “What to Eat on a Burning Planet” series, Aug. 9):

Professor Famiglietti’s essay about tapping the Great Lakes’ water supply drowns an important call for better national water planning under the specter of water diversion on a massive scale. Here’s why the idea is a nonstarter — and a dangerous distraction.

First, a better governance framework prevents it. The U.S.-Canadian Great Lakes Compact rules out diversion outside the Great Lakes basin with few exceptions.

Second, even if technically possible to move Great Lakes water west, the costs in terms of dollars and energy are unbearable. Hundreds of power plants would be required just to lift water over the Continental Divide and wouldn’t make a dent in the drought.

Third, a combination of engineering and poor governance got us into the Western water crisis, turning California into the nation’s breadbasket at great cost to ecosystems and economies. We can’t just engineer our way out of it.

People and industry will move, as they always have, where the climate is favorable and water and other resources are abundant. This migration is already underway, according to recent San Francisco Fed research and the choice by several high-profile industries to locate in areas of greater resilience.

As a water industry leader, I agree with Dr. Famiglietti on a single point: Smarter national water planning and policy are necessary and urgent, both for regions facing water scarcity and those, like the Great Lakes, coming under increased pressure because of our freshwater abundance. Today. Before it’s too late.

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Thousands of tons of radioactive waste from atom bomb-making heading to Wayne County

A hazardous waste landfill in Wayne County is preparing to take 6,000 cubic yards of soil and concrete and 4,000 gallons of groundwater contaminated with elevated radiation from a site in New York where the Manhattan Project developed the atomic bomb during and just after World War II.

The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, working on remediation of the Niagara Falls Storage Site in Lewiston, New York, estimates that 25 semitrucks per week, into January 2025, will transport the elevated radioactive wastes along public roads and highways to the Wayne Disposal facility just off Interstate 94 in Van Buren Township.

The New York waste removal, its trucking to Michigan and disposal in Wayne County comply with all local, state and federal regulations for the handling of such materials, said Avery Schneider, deputy chief of public affairs for the Army Corps' Buffalo District.

"The first thing we look at in all of these projects is how we can do it safely — from the employees on-site who are working around the material, excavating it and preparing it for removal, to the communities around the site, to the folks who are going to transport it out to Belleville, Michigan, to where it can be safely stored," he said.

But that's a sore subject to many in southeast Michigan concerned about having among the nation's largest hazardous waste processing and landfilling facilities in their backyard. In February 2023, shipments to Wayne Disposal and other southeast Michigan facilities of hazardous waste from an East Palestine, Ohio, train derailment prompted a large outcry from the public, local officials and state and federal lawmakers. Government representatives demanded to know why locals were given no notice about the shipments in advance. Under pressure, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency officials stopped shipments of the Ohio train derailment wastes to Michigan .

But on a daily basis, Wayne Disposal and nearby companion hazardous waste processing facility Michigan Disposal take in a variety of hazardous wastes, often from other states.

More: How southeast Michigan became a dumping ground for America's most dangerous chemicals

More: After East Palestine, more in Michigan wonder what hazards roll by on trains

Michigan Rep. Reggie Miller, D-Van Buren Township, was informed by the Free Press of the upcoming shipments to Wayne Disposal of elevated radiation wastes from atomic bomb development in New York.

"I was not aware of this, nor was I alerted. That's frustrating," she said. "I'm not happy about that, to say the very least."

Miller said she's particularly concerned about the shipments as they roll on public roads.

"That's always been my issue — what happens if that semi overturns and it goes into water?" she said. "We have the largest lake in Wayne County (Belleville Lake) and that's always been a concern."

The legacy of Manhattan Project residue

During and after World War II, the Manhattan Engineering District contracted with processing facilities across the country to extract uranium from ore to create the uranium metal needed to develop atomic bombs. The unused ore material that remained after the extraction process, called residue, retained elevated radioactivity.

Created in February 1944 on the idled grounds of the former Lake Ontario Ordnance Works, the Niagara Falls Storage Site in Lewiston, New York, became a primary storage location for wastes and byproducts associated with uranium ore refining being carried out in Tonawanda, New York, in support of the Manhattan Project.

The Manhattan Engineer District became the Atomic Energy Commission in 1946, and shipments of radioactive waste continued to the Niagara site until 1952.

A nationwide cleanup effort for former atomic weapon and energy sites was undertaken beginning in 1974, the Formerly Utilized Sites Remedial Action Program, or FUSRAP. The U.S. Department of Energy handed the program over to the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers in the 1990s.

The Niagara site, in a cleanup expected to last until 2038, will leave the property in a condition suitable for industrial use, Schneider said.

The project is in its first phase, in which 6,000 cubic yards of soil and concrete will be excavated from the 191-acre site. A more concentrated, 10-acre area within the facility where higher-radiation waste is stored on-site will be dealt with later. Prep work for phase one excavation is underway now, Schneider said, with the actual digging starting "later this month and into September."

Republic Services, the Arizona-based owners of Wayne Disposal, responded to Free Press inquiries with an emailed statement from Melissa Quillard, senior manager of external communications.

"Environmental remediation projects require facilities that are equipped to manage the material responsibly," she stated. "Complex waste streams must go to the right site to ensure they are safely and compliantly managed, which means interstate shipments commonly occur."

Quillard noted that the Wayne Disposal landfill "is highly engineered with multiple safety measures in place, including frequent inspections and systems tests to ensure everything is operating as it should."

The elevated radiation materials coming from the Niagara Site "fall well within our permit guidelines," she stated.

Higher radiation waste won't come to Michigan

The Army Corps has committed that all materials shipped to Wayne Disposal from the Niagara site will be less than 50 picocuries per gram in radiation, said T.R. Wentworth II, manager of the Radiological Protection Section of the Michigan Department of Environment, Great Lakes and Energy's Materials Management Division. One picocurie is roughly equivalent to background levels of radioactivity naturally occurring in the environment.

That's a stricter guideline than both federal and state environmental regulations would require, he said.

"As a regulator, the state doesn't have any concerns for this (Niagara site) material from a health and safety standpoint," Wentworth said.

A 2018 revision to Michigan environmental law placed additional monitoring requirements on landfills accepting wastes with elevated levels of radiation beyond natural ambient levels, known as Technologically Enhanced Naturally Occurring Radioactive Material.

No conventional landfills have chosen to amend their licenses to accept these wastes, Wentworth said, leaving hazardous waste landfills like Wayne Disposal remaining as the only facilities where such wastes currently go.

The higher-radiation wastes at the Niagara site slated for removal in the next phase of the New York cleanup won't be going to Wayne Disposal, Wentworth said. "That would be in violation of their license," he said.

Wayne Disposal has previously accepted FUSRAP cleanup site wastes from other sites in New York, Ohio, New Jersey and Missouri, Schneider said.

Contact Keith Matheny: [email protected].

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A review of the most concerning chemical contaminants in drinking water for human health.

1. Introduction

2. materials and methods, 3. results and discussion, 3.1. priority chemical contaminants, 3.2. screening, 3.3. contamination levels, 3.3.1. arsenic, 3.3.2. nitrate, 3.3.3. fluoride.

3.4. Daily and Annual Potential Exposure

3.5. regional distribution of contamination, 3.6. research trend, 3.7. causes of contamination, 3.8. impact on human health, 4. future perspectives, 5. conclusions, author contributions, data availability statement, conflicts of interest.

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Share and Cite

Jurczynski, Y.; Passos, R.; Campos, L.C. A Review of the Most Concerning Chemical Contaminants in Drinking Water for Human Health. Sustainability 2024 , 16 , 7107. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16167107

Jurczynski Y, Passos R, Campos LC. A Review of the Most Concerning Chemical Contaminants in Drinking Water for Human Health. Sustainability . 2024; 16(16):7107. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16167107

Jurczynski, Yasemin, Robson Passos, and Luiza C. Campos. 2024. "A Review of the Most Concerning Chemical Contaminants in Drinking Water for Human Health" Sustainability 16, no. 16: 7107. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16167107

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Over 4,000 pounds of diesel, waste removed from abandoned boat near St. Petersburg

by Skyler Shepard

By Wednesday, crews managed to remove around 130 gallons of diesel from the boat and approximately 4,000 lbs. of waste — specifically diesel-contaminated absorbent material — from the water. (USCG St. Petersburg)

BOCA CIEGA BAY, Fla. (CBS12) — Over 4,000 pounds of diesel and waste were removed from an abandoned boat near St. Petersburg.

On Monday, the U.S. Coast Guard said crews responded to a sunken boat that was leaking diesel off the coast of Boca Ciega Bay, a city 10 miles west of St. Petersburg.

The federal government took control of the spill response and used the Oil Spill Liability Trust Fund to cover the costs, according to the news release.

See also: West Palm Beach man among suspects accused of smuggling 20 foreign nationals

Response crews then came in to contain and clean the spill. The process took three days to complete.

By Wednesday, crews managed to remove around 130 gallons of diesel from the boat and approximately 4,000 lbs. of waste — specifically diesel-contaminated absorbent material — from the water.

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Viral reaction to radiation in southern China highlights alarm over Japan’s Fukushima nuclear waste water release

• Radiation report putting coastal Zhuhai at No 2 countrywide goes viral on Weibo, with many users pointing to Fukushima
• City authorities say the reading is normal, but Chinese public remain worried about likely long-term health impact of low-level radiation

A government report detailing airborne radiation levels in major Chinese cities went viral earlier this week on the country’s social media platforms, after the southern coastal metropolis of Zhuhai was ranked at No 2.

Tibet topped the data released by the radiation monitoring centre of the Ministry of Ecology and Environment on Thursday, but this was put down to the region’s active geological conditions and higher altitude which increase exposure to cosmic radiation.

Weibo users, meanwhile, speculated on the source of the radiation levels in Zhuhai.

“The government should test the seawater in the direction of Japan,” another user said.

Japan starts releasing treated nuclear waste water from Fukushima nuclear plant

The Chinese public, meanwhile, are worried about the long-term health impact of low-level radiation. Some Chinese cities have seen a salt-buying frenzy amid a misguided belief it will help to counteract the effects of radiation, while a brick was reportedly thrown at the Japanese embassy in Beijing.

The measure of concern is the airborne radiation rate, which provides a real-time snapshot of environmental contamination levels. It covers both naturally occurring radiation from the Earth and cosmic rays from space.

The data is acquired through 368 automatic radiation monitoring stations across China, 118 of them located around nuclear power plants in a fan-shaped pattern. The rest are in urban parks, rooftops, and green spaces in major cities.

Recent readings from a station at Sun Yat-sen University in Zhuhai showed levels consistently above 130, while most other readings within Guangdong were below 100.

However, the Zhuhai Ecological Environment Bureau (Zhee) said that the numbers were within the normal range. “Historical data in Zhuhai indicates a range of 127.9 to 332.1, so 130 is considered normal,” the bureau said in a statement.

“Radiation monitoring is an essential part of ensuring nuclear and radiation safety. It provides the public with scientific, accurate, and reliable information, and protects the public’s right to know about nuclear and radiation safety,” Shanghai-based digital media The Paper quoted a Zhee representative as saying in a report published on Thursday.

Radiation levels are normally influenced by natural geological conditions and cosmic rays. Short-term factors like rainfall and soil moisture can also have an effect on readings.

Researchers from the China University of Geosciences said in a 2005 paper that Zhuhai, located in the Pearl River Delta, had widespread distribution of granites from the late Jurassic era.

These rocks generate naturally high background radiation, making Zhuhai one of the areas with the highest levels of geological background radiation in China.

In comparison, most areas in Japan have a low air radiation rate of below 100. However, certain monitoring stations near Fukushima recorded figures as high as 3,800 on Thursday, greatly exceeding the readings before the nuclear disaster.

Despite Japan’s explanations and safety assurances on the waste water release, several mainstream scientific organisations have raised concerns over the potential harm.

“Even with extensive scientific research, people will still be worried when you release contaminated water into the ocean on such a large scale,” Lu Binglin, chairman of the Hong Kong Nuclear Society, told the BBC in July.