conventions of essay

Writing Conventions: What They Are & How To Use Them

• February 22, 2024

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What is a writing convention, 1. spelling and grammar, 2. punctuation, 3. capitalization, 4. paragraphing, 5. formatting, 6. citation and referencing , narrative writing conventions, persuasive writing conventions, letter writing conventions, instructional writing conventions, formal writing conventions, why do writing conventions matter, faqs on writing conventions, we also recommend.

Have you ever wondered why some writing just seems to flow effortlessly, while others seem confusing and disjointed? The secret lies in understanding and utilizing writing conventions effectively.

Writing conventions are the basic rules and norms that govern the way we write. They encompass everything from grammar and punctuation to formatting and structure. Mastering these conventions can make a world of difference in the clarity and impact of your writing.

Whether you are a student, a professional, or simply someone who wants to improve your writing skills, understanding writing conventions is essential. In this article, we will explore what writing conventions are, why they matter, and how you can use them to enhance your writing.

Writing and language conventions encompass the guidelines individuals need to adhere to when composing any type of written content. Whether crafting a narrative or delivering a political address, adherence to certain fundamentals, such as constructing complete sentences and correctly spelling words, is crucial for ensuring coherence and impact on the audience.

In addition to the broader writing conventions applicable to all forms of text, specific genres have distinct regulations and principles that govern them. For instance, the presence of stage directions, scenes, and dialogue without quotation marks signifies a play script.

Keep reading below to learn all about language conventions and techniques, including a language conventions list for you to use with your class.

READ ALSO: 50 Exclusive 6th Grade Writing Prompts that are Printable for Free

What Are The Basic Writing Conventions?

The basic writing conventions and rules that must be followed in all writing tasks, to help the reader understand what has been written are:

Accurate spelling and proper grammar form the foundation of effective communication. They play a crucial role in ensuring that your words are transparent, succinct, and easily comprehensible to your audience. Beyond just enhancing the readability of your writing, adherence to correct spelling and grammar reflects your commitment to precision and professionalism.

Typos and grammatical missteps have the potential to diminish the impact of your work, obscuring its intended meaning. Proficiency in spelling and grammar conventions empowers you to articulate your thoughts with clarity and precision, allowing you to express ideas with confidence and authority. Therefore, giving due attention to this essential writing convention is a key step toward honing your skills as a proficient wordsmith.

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Punctuation is crucial in sentences for several reasons. Firstly, it helps to clarify the structure and organization of your writing, guiding readers on how to interpret the text. Punctuation marks, such as commas, periods, and colons, create pauses, indicate the end of a sentence, and separate different elements within a sentence.

Secondly, punctuation contributes to the overall tone and meaning of a sentence. For example, the placement of a comma can change the emphasis or nuance of a phrase. It helps to convey the intended emotions and nuances, preventing misunderstandings.

Punctuation marks like commas, periods, semicolons, and dashes should be used correctly since they may distinguish between poorly and flawlessly formed sentences. Every mark has a unique function and, when utilized skillfully, can elevate an ordinary statement to the level of an artistic creation. Take advantage of the power of punctuation and your writing will flow naturally, captivating your audience with your deft use of language.

Capitalization serves as a means of adding sophistication and lucidity to your writing, aiding in the differentiation of proper nouns, titles, and the commencement of sentences. This writing convention is indispensable as it imparts a sense of significance and emphasis to your words, guiding the reader’s focus toward the most pivotal aspects of your text.

Using capitalization at the onset of a sentence or for the initial letter of a proper noun establishes a formal and professional tone. Additionally, capitalizing the first word in a title or heading introduces a touch of creativity and style. Therefore, utilizing capitalization judiciously enhances your writing, allowing each letter to stand prominently, and capturing the reader’s attention with pride and clarity.

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Paragraphing enhances readability by breaking down a piece of text into manageable and organized chunks. This structure provides visual cues to readers, guiding them through the flow of ideas and making the content more digestible.

It helps to organize and group related information together. Each paragraph typically focuses on a specific point or idea, allowing readers to follow the logical progression of your thoughts. This organizational structure makes it easier for readers to understand the connections between different concepts.

Formatting in writing refers to the arrangement and presentation of text to enhance its readability, clarity, and overall visual appeal. Proper formatting is crucial for various reasons:

Well-formatted text is easier to read. The right use of fonts, font size, and line spacing contributes to a comfortable reading experience.

Furthermore, formatting aids in organizing ideas and information logically. Headings, subheadings, and bullet points create a visual hierarchy, making it clear how different pieces of information relate to each other. This improves the overall structure and coherence of the document.

By mastering formatting conventions, you can make your writing more attractive and engaging, ensuring that your message is received loud and clear. So, embrace the power of formatting and watch your writing come to life on the page!

Citing and referencing form the basis of academic writing, serving to acknowledge the sources you’ve consulted and utilized to bolster your ideas.

Accurate citation not only showcases your research acumen but also underscores your commitment to intellectual integrity and recognition of others’ contributions. Proper citation and referencing play a pivotal role in enhancing the credibility and authority of your writing, enabling readers to trace your sources and validate your assertions.

Whether you’re crafting an essay, research paper, or any academic document, proficiency in citation and referencing conventions is indispensable. Embrace this writing practice as an opportunity to exhibit your academic prowess, thereby making your writing more compelling and persuasive.

Check out 10 Tips on How to Increase Readability Score While Writing

Tone is the emotional quality or attitude that comes across in your writing. It is a subtle but powerful writing convention that can shape the way your message is received by your audience. Tone can be playful or serious, formal or informal, optimistic or pessimistic, and it sets the overall mood of your writing.

By mastering tone, you can effectively convey your message and connect with your readers on an emotional level. It is important to keep your audience in mind when choosing your tone, as different readers may respond better to different emotional appeals.

Style represents the distinctive and individualized touch that a writer imparts to their writing. It includes various components such as sentence construction, vocabulary selection, figurative expressions, and overall tone. Cultivating a unique style allows a writer to distinguish their work, making it memorable and impactful for their readers.

A strong writing style can also make your writing more engaging and memorable, drawing your readers in and keeping them hooked until the very end. However, style is not just about aesthetics – it is also about clarity, coherence, and effectiveness. By mastering the conventions of style, you can ensure that your writing is both beautiful and effective, leaving your readers with a lasting impression of your talent and skill.

SEE ALSO: Chinese vs Japanese Writing: A Side-by-Side Comparison

Writing Conventions For specific Genres

While the rules of spelling, punctuation, capitalization, and grammar are necessary for all texts, some genres have their own sets of rules and principles to follow. These features help the reader to identify what kind of text they are looking at.

Here are the different writing conventions for specific genres:

Like a book, a narrative text recounts a tale. Characters, dialogue, and an obvious narrative structure are some characteristics of a narrative work. To ensure that their narrative text has a distinct beginning, build-up, climax, resolution, and finish, children might prepare utilizing a tale mountain framework. You can be certain that you are reading a narrative if the material you are reading has a plot like this.

Persuasive writings can take the form of speeches, articles, posters, or other written works to persuade the reader to share the author’s viewpoint. Possessing a distinct point of view, which is usually expressed in the opening and conclusion, is an illustration of a persuasive writing convention. Rhetorical inquiries, emotive language, and facts and numbers will also be common elements.

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Numerous visual cues indicate the kind of text you are reading when you are reading a letter. A letter’s address, date, and salutation (such as “Dear Sir/Madam”) are all located in the upper right-hand corner. Additionally, it is probably going to be written in paragraphs and end with a salutation like “Yours Sincerely.”

Instructional writing covers text types such as recipes, instruction manuals, and how-to articles. This genre has many defining conventions, such as having a numbered list of instructions. This will be written in chronological order, and include imperative verb commands, such as “Mix the batter”. Instructions are unlikely to include any speech or descriptive features. This specific list of conventions helps the reader to know they are reading a set of instructions and to follow them effectively.

Writing conventions extend to distinct registers and genres. When creating a formal text, like a letter to your headteacher, particular guidelines govern your writing, signaling to the reader the formal nature of the communication. This involves refraining from using contractions, opting for expressions like “cannot” instead of the more casual “can’t.” A formal text is also unlikely to incorporate nicknames or slang terms. Adhering to these conventions assists in establishing the appropriate tone for your writing.

Writers utilize conventions to enrich and elucidate the meaning of their written expressions. These conventions empower writers to articulate precisely how a word or phrase should be comprehended by the reader, facilitating a clear grasp of the writer’s intended message. In instances where the writer is not physically present to orally convey the text, conventions serve the function of reading the content on behalf of the writer.

When composing any piece of writing, the writer typically envisions and hears the words internally before putting them to paper. While the writer has a distinct auditory perception, the reader lacks this personal insight. Conventions function as a roadmap, directing the reader through the text—signaling pauses, advancements, accelerations, decelerations, and other nuances. Essentially, conventions ensure that the written composition resonates with the intended tone and rhythm as perceived by the writer during the writing process.

Without conventions, writing would be a mess. If we didn’t put a space between each word just as you can see, everything would run together. Without the convention of correct spelling, writers could never be sure if readers would be able to read the words they had written. And even if we all spelled each word the same way, without the convention of punctuation, writers would still have trouble getting their message across.

Writing conventions are established rules and practices governing the mechanics, structure, and presentation of written language. They include elements like grammar, punctuation, spelling, and formatting.

Writing conventions are crucial for effective communication. They ensure clarity, consistency, and understanding in written content, making it easier for readers to comprehend the message.

Reading widely, studying grammar guides, and practicing writing are effective ways to enhance your grasp of writing conventions. Seeking feedback from peers or instructors can also be beneficial.

Regular proofreading, attention to detail, and awareness of common mistakes (e.g., grammatical errors, punctuation misuse) are key to minimizing language convention errors in writing.

Writers utilize conventions to enrich and elucidate the meaning of their written expressions. These conventions empower writers to articulate precisely how a word or phrase should be comprehended by the reader, facilitating a clear grasp of the writer’s intended message.

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Writing Conventions

Last updated on: Jun 28, 2024

Writing Conventions and Tips for College Students

By: Nova A.

Reviewed By: Chris H.

Published on: Apr 30, 2019

College is hard. There's no getting around it, but with some help from the right resources, you can make college a little easier.

Every student somewhere in their academic life learns how to write essays.  Essay writing  is an essential part of academic life and a student must learn how to master it.

But are you new to the concept of writing conventions?

You are most likely to come across them in your English language assignments.

This does not seem overly complicated. Continue reading to figure out its actual meaning and usage.

This blog post will teach you about writing conventions and tips for college students.

If you're looking for an A+ student experience, keep reading!

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What are Writing Conventions?

Writing conventions are the generally accepted standards for written English. They are basic language rules that enable the readers to understand the text by making it clear and easy to read. It requires certain lesson plans that ensure the improvement in academic performance along with professional growth.

They also serve as signposts for the readers to provide familiar ground for what the message says. Middle and high school teachers might be lenient but it won't be the case in college.

Having a good grasp of grammar, language, punctuation, and sentence structure is a must. It can't be possible without practice. A student needs a lot of effort and hard work to complete their writing assignments.

The Main Writing Conventions

‘What are conventions in writing?’

There are some key writing conventions that should be mastered to produce the best quality essays. These writing conventions include spelling, capitalization, punctuation, grammar, and sentence structure.

Let us discuss each one in detail.

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Children start learning letters by recognizing the words. Furthermore, they learn the rules of spelling in school. It is a crucial convention of writing as it can make all the difference in life.

Many employers have trashed a lot of resumes simply because they were riddled with spelling mistakes. Similarly, incorrect spellings also become a reason behind poor grades.

Both grammar and punctuation are important for proper language. Grammar is the language structure that is used to form a sentence. It involves the changing of the form of words along with combining it into coherent sentences. You should be consistent while differentiating between present perfect and past simple tense.

Otherwise, the audience may get confused about the time frame or sequence of the described actions. Moreover, it also includes certain rules to follow. Below-mentioned are examples of grammar elements.

• Sentence structure
• Paragraph structure
• Phrases and clauses
• Parts of speech
• Word choice

Punctuation

Punctuations are important in conventions without which the writing would not make any sense. It helps us to read something the way it is. Similarly, it also tells the reader:

• When to pause
• When to read with more expression
• When to stop
• When to start a new sentence

We have multiple ways of making our meaning clear while writing like rhythm, intonation, and pausing. Only the use of proper punctuation serves the cause.

For example, commas mean pausing. However, overusing them may confuse the readers. Therefore, it is important to master this set of rules for writing creatively.

Capitalization

Capitalization rules tell when a new sentence begins or when something has a proper title. Capital letters also assist in showing the importance of certain words by shortening long phrases into acronyms. It takes up less written space and becomes easier to remember.

Writing Conventions for College Students

Language rules usually vary with the content and genre. These convention rules are accepted in both formal and informal essays. They serve as the final step of your editing process.

Being capable of composing your college essays according to spelling, punctuation, and grammar conventions is a real challenge. Here we have mentioned some basic tips on Standard English conventions for college students. Follow them for writing perfect college essays.

• Use correct spellings and punctuations
• The verb tenses should be appropriate
• Writing in complete sentences
• Don't use run-on sentences
• Avoid using fragments
• Do not mention abbreviations
• Put citations correctly
• Organize paragraphs properly
• Use transitions

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Writing Convention for Different Writing Styles

Each writing style has its own conventions that are given below:

• Narrative writing must have a plot, setting, and characters.
• Descriptive writing must include good vocabulary that must appeal to the senses.
• Expository writing must inform, clarify, define and explain.
• Persuasive writing must present an argument on the basis of facts and logic.

If you are stuck with your essay and unsure whether you will meet all the requirements, you might need some help. It is completely natural for the students to pick this option. You can ask professional writers who can guarantee to consider all the instructions.

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Marketing, Law

As a Digital Content Strategist, Nova Allison has eight years of experience in writing both technical and scientific content. With a focus on developing online content plans that engage audiences, Nova strives to write pieces that are not only informative but captivating as well.

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What Are Writing Conventions? A Comprehensive Guide to Writing Rules and Conventions of Writing

“The single biggest problem with communication is the illusion that it has taken place.”

In this article, we’ll delve deeper into what writing conventions are, examine some of the most common writing conventions examples, identify the essential five conventions of writing, discuss how to identify conventions in writing, and why conventions are important in writing.

Simple Examples of Writing Conventions

Writing conventions examples include but are not limited to grammar, spelling, punctuation, capitalization, sentence structure, paragraph structure, and vocabulary. These conventions differ from one language to another, making it necessary to understand the unique rules for each language.

For instance, let’s examine the following sentence:

“There’s a difference between knowing your shit and knowing you’re shit.”

In the above sentence, the importance of grammatical conventions such as spelling, punctuation, and contractions can be observed. The incorrect use of “your” instead of “you’re” changes the sentence’s meaning entirely. The same applies to the misuse of contractions, which are essential in conveying a message concisely.

Another example is the use of capitalization in the following sentence:

“i love writing articles, but this one is a nightmare.”

The sentence’s meaning remains the same, but its impact changes when written correctly. Such mistakes tend to discredit writers and lower their credibility, regardless of the quality of their content.

What are the 5 Conventions?

The five essential writing conventions include:

• Spelling: Writing correctly spelled words.
• Punctuation: Using appropriate punctuation such as commas, full stops, apostrophes, colons, and semicolons.
• Grammar: Using correct grammar such as subject-verb agreement, tenses, pronouns, and prepositions.
• Sentence Structure: Constructing sentences in a way that makes them clear and easy to understand.
• Capitalization: Writing capitalized letters for proper nouns, the first word in a sentence, and titles of books, films, and other artistic works.

How Do You Identify Writing Conventions?

Identifying conventions in writing is essential as it helps in proofreading and correcting errors. Here are some simple ways of identifying conventions in writing:

• Read Your Writing Out Loud: Reading out loud helps identify errors in grammar, punctuation, and sentence structure. It helps in identifying instances where commas, full stops, or colons have been omitted or misplaced.
• Proofread: Proofreading involves reviewing your written work, sentence by sentence, word by word, looking for errors or areas that may require a few corrections.
• Use Writing Tools: Writing tools such as Grammarly, Hemingway, or ProWritingAid, are excellent for identifying spelling, grammar, and punctuation errors. These tools use algorithms that flag errors and offer suggestions for improvement, making the editing process easier and more efficient.

Why are Conventions Important in Writing?

Writing conventions are vital in ensuring that your message is communicated clearly and accurately. Here are some reasons why:

• Conventions Improve Communication: Conventions of writing improve communication by making the writing easier to understand. When the reader can comprehend a message in fewer attempts, there’s less chance of misunderstanding.
• Conventions Build Credibility: Proper use of writing conventions such as grammar, spelling, and punctuation, portray a writer as knowledgeable and credible. This, in turn, builds trust between the writer and the reader.
• Conventions Establish Consistency: Writing conventions create a standard way of communicating ideas. When writing is standardized, readers are more likely to pay attention to the content than the errors or inconsistencies.

In conclusion, writing conventions are essential in ensuring that your message is communicated clearly and effectively. Following these conventions is an excellent way to make your writing easier to read and understand, which will lead to more successful communication with your readers.

• Grammarly: Conventions in Writing
• UNC Writing Center: Grammar
• The Word Counter: The Importance of Spelling and Writing Conventions

Christophe Garon

March 12, 2023

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The Easiest Way to Get Comfortable with Conventions in Writing

You are guessing it right at this point. This blog post is the guide you need to understand everything about conventions in writing. Wait, does it mean that we’ll also have a good idea of using conventions in writing well? Of course, reading examples of how  our writers  turn the ordinary into extraordinary will get you on the right track to achieve that.

Speaking of which, we’ll unlock the simplest route to make those writing norms feel like second nature. Ready to breeze through the maze of writing conventions effortlessly? Let’s get started.

Table of Contents

What are conventions in writing?

Writing conventions are like a set of writing rules. They include things like grammar, punctuation, how you organize your writing, and how you give credit to other people’s ideas.

These rules help make sure that when people read what you write, they can understand it easily. They’re like a guide that everyone follows so that writing looks and sounds clear and makes sense to everyone who reads it. Learning these rules helps you become a better writer and helps others understand what you’re trying to say.

No doubt, understanding all conventions could be challenging for students at first, that’s why we advise you to count on the best  paper writing service  for guidance and assistance. Anyway, let’s move forward with understanding what is a convention in writing.

Why Do Students Find It Difficult to Understand Conventions in Writing?

Students often find understanding writing conventions tricky for a few reasons. First off, these conventions can seem like a whole new language! Things like grammar rules, punctuation, and citation styles might feel overwhelming at first.

Also, these rules can be super detailed and seem picky. It’s like trying to learn all the small, specific things while still trying to express your ideas clearly. Sometimes it feels like following all these rules might make writing stiff or less fun.

Plus, writing conventions vary across different subjects and even different types of writing. What’s okay in an English essay might not be the same in a scientific report. So, keeping track of all these differences can add to the confusion.

And let’s be honest, learning all these rules takes time and practice. It’s not something you master overnight! So, it’s pretty normal for students to find it tough to wrap their heads around writing conventions at first.

Everything You Need to Know About Conventions in Writing

Understanding and effectively using conventions in writing is crucial for clear communication. Here’s a comprehensive breakdown:

Grammar and Punctuation

Grammar forms the foundation of effective writing. It involves understanding sentence structure, verb tense, subject-verb agreement, and more. Punctuation, including commas, periods, semicolons, and dashes, helps convey meaning and structure within sentences. Mastery of these elements ensures clarity and coherence in written expression.

Let’s break down their significance and how they contribute to conveying meaning:

Grammar Fundamentals

Sentence Structure:  Understanding how sentences are constructed is vital. A sentence typically comprises a subject, a verb, and sometimes an object. For instance, The cat (subject) sat (verb) on the mat (object).

Verb Tense:  Proper use of verb tenses is crucial for conveying the timing of actions. For instance, She runs (present tense) versus She ran (past tense).

Subject-Verb Agreement:  Ensuring that the subject and verb agree in number (singular or plural) is important. For example, He walks (singular subject with a singular verb) versus They walk (plural subject with a plural verb).

Punctuation’s Role in Clarity

Commas:  Used to separate clauses or items in a list, they help clarify the structure of a sentence. For example, I enjoy reading, writing, and painting.

Periods:  Indicate the end of a sentence. Each sentence starts with a capital letter and ends with a period. “The dog barked. Then it ran away.”

Semicolons and Dashes:  These punctuation marks help connect related clauses or emphasize information. For instance, She loved the outdoors; it was her sanctuary. Or The house—the one on the corner—was painted yellow.

Example demonstrating grammar and punctuation

Original sentence with errors:  “The students goes to school, they enjoys learning.”

Corrected sentence with proper grammar and punctuation:  The students go to school; they enjoy learning.

The subject (“students”) agrees with the verb (“go”) in terms of number.

A semicolon is used to connect related but independent clauses.

The verb tense is adjusted to match the subject and convey the present tense for enjoyment (“enjoy”).

Style and Tone

Writing style encompasses the way you express your ideas. It involves choices in vocabulary, sentence structure, and overall tone. Different styles suit different contexts; for instance, academic writing may require a formal tone, while creative writing allows for more flexibility.

Let’s dig into their significance with examples:

Writing Style and Its Components

Vocabulary Choices:  The words you choose impact the tone and clarity of your writing. For instance, using technical jargon might suit a scientific paper but may confuse readers in a casual blog post.

Sentence Structure:  Varied sentence structures (simple, compound, complex) add depth and flow to your writing. Varying lengths and structures keep the reader engaged.

Overall Tone:  Tone reflects the author’s attitude towards the subject. It can be formal, informal, persuasive, informative, or even humorous.

Adapting Styles to Contexts

Academic Writing:  Often demands a formal tone, objective language, and adherence to specific formatting and citation styles. For example, The study examined the correlation between X and Y, following established methodologies.

Creative Writing:  Allows for more flexibility and experimentation with language. It may employ descriptive language, vivid imagery, and varied sentence structures. For example, The stars danced across the velvet sky, whispering secrets to the night.

Example illustrating different styles in context:

Academic Style:  The statistical analysis revealed a significant correlation between increased exercise and reduced stress levels among participants, validating the study’s hypothesis.

Creative Style:  As the sun kissed the horizon, the world sighed in relief, and the heartbeats of the weary slowed to the rhythm of a tranquil evening.

Formatting and Structure

Proper formatting organizes your writing effectively. This includes setting margins, using headings and subheadings, and adhering to specific guidelines for different writing formats (like essays, research papers, or reports). A clear structure, with introductions, body paragraphs, and conclusions, helps convey your ideas logically.

Let’s explore their significance in detail:

Formatting Essentials

Margins and Spacing:  Consistent margins and appropriate line spacing (such as double-spaced or 1.5 spacing) enhance readability.

Headings and Subheadings:  These help organize content, signaling shifts in topics or subtopics, making it easier for readers to navigate through the text.

Font and Size:  Using a readable font style and size ensures clarity. Common choices include Times New Roman, Arial, or Calibri with a font size of 12 points for most academic works.

Adherence to Writing Guidelines

Different Writing Formats:  Essays, research papers, reports, and other types of writing often have specific guidelines for structure and formatting. For instance, an essay might follow an introduction-body-conclusion structure, while a research paper might include sections like abstract, methodology, results, and discussion.

Citation Styles:  Different disciplines might require different citation styles (APA, MLA, Chicago, etc.). Adhering to these styles for citing sources is crucial for academic integrity.

Conventions of Academic Writing (Essay Structure Example)

Introduction:  Introduces the main topic and presents the thesis statement that outlines the essay’s purpose.

Body Paragraphs:  Each paragraph addresses a specific point or argument, supported by evidence or examples.

Conclusion:  Summarizes the main points and restates the thesis, providing a closing statement.

Research Paper Structure Example

Abstract:  Briefly summarizes the research paper, including its objectives, methodology, results, and conclusions.

Introduction:  Provides background information, introduces the research question, and states the thesis.

Body Sections:  Each section covers specific aspects of the research, such as methodology, results, and discussion.

Conclusion:  Summarizes the findings, discusses implications, and often suggests areas for further research.

Citations and Referencing

Citing sources correctly is essential in academic writing. It involves acknowledging the ideas or information you’ve borrowed from other sources. Various citation styles (APA, MLA, Chicago, etc.) have specific rules for citing books, articles, websites, and other sources.

citations and referencing are foundational in academic writing, ensuring credibility and acknowledging the contributions of other scholars. Here’s a detailed breakdown:

Purpose of Citations

Acknowledgment of Sources:  Citations give credit to the original authors or creators whose ideas, research, or work you’ve referenced in your own writing.

Supporting Claims:  They lend credibility to your arguments by demonstrating that reputable sources and existing research back them.

Avoiding Plagiarism:  Proper citations prevent plagiarism by distinguishing your original ideas from borrowed information.

Components of Citations

Author(s) and Publication Year:  Include the author’s name(s) and the year of publication within the text or in parentheses.

Title and Source Information:  For books, articles, websites, or other sources, include the title and publication details.

Page Numbers or URLs:  When quoting or paraphrasing specific sections, page numbers (for print sources) or URLs (for online sources) are often included.

Different Citation Styles

APA (American Psychological Association):  Commonly used in social sciences, business, and nursing, it emphasizes author-date citations and a references page.

MLA (Modern Language Association):  Often used in humanities and liberal arts, it employs author-page citations and a works cited page.

Chicago/Turabian Style:  Widely used in history, arts, and humanities, it offers two documentation systems: notes-bibliography and author-date.

Example illustrating citations in different styles

APA Style Citation:  (Author Last Name, Year)

According to Smith (2020), the impact of technology on education is profound.

MLA Style Citation:  (Author Last Name Page Number)

The concept of cultural diversity is widely discussed (Jones 45).

Chicago Style Citation:  (Author Last Name, Publication Year, Page Number)

It has been argued that this phenomenon is not uncommon (Miller 2015, 32).

Clarity and Coherence

Conventions in writing aim to make your writing clear and easy to understand. This involves avoiding ambiguity, using transitions to connect ideas, and ensuring a logical flow of thoughts.

Clarity in Writing

Avoiding Ambiguity:  Clarity hinges on precise and unambiguous language. Clearly articulating ideas leaves no room for confusion or multiple interpretations. For instance, The new policy benefits everyone” might be ambiguous; specifying who benefits makes it clearer.

Concise Expression:  Using clear, concise language without unnecessary jargon or overly complex sentences enhances readability and understanding.

Coherence in Writing

Transitions and Cohesive Devices:  Employing words or phrases (e.g., ‘however,’ ‘moreover,’ ‘in addition’) creates bridges between sentences and paragraphs, guiding the reader smoothly through the text.

Logical Flow:  Arranging ideas in a logical sequence ensures that each point connects seamlessly to the next. A well-structured outline aids in maintaining this logical progression.

Example illustrating clarity and coherence:

Without Clarity and Coherence:

“The event was good. Many people attended. Food was served. It was enjoyable.”

With Clarity and Coherence:

“The event drew a large crowd due to its engaging program. Attendees relished the variety of delicious dishes served, creating an enjoyable and memorable experience.”

In the improved example:

Clear and specific details replace vague statements, making the description more vivid.

Transitional phrases (‘due to,’ ‘creating,’ ‘and’) link the ideas together, providing a smoother flow between sentences.

Good Conventions vs, Poor Conventions

Here’s a table showing a comparison between a text with good conventions of English and a text with poor conventions.

How can Students Learn the Conventions of Writing

These are the best practices for students to get better at learning the conventions of writing. Even if you hire a  thesis writing service , the expert would suggest these:

Study Guides and Resources

Using grammar books, style guides, and online resources tailored to specific conventions helps in understanding rules and their applications.

Practice and Writing Exercises

Regular writing practice, including essays, reports, or creative pieces, allows students to implement learned conventions.

Peer Review and Feedback

Engaging in peer reviews or seeking feedback from instructors helps identify areas for improvement in applying conventions.

Online Courses or Workshops

Enrolling in writing courses or attending workshops focusing on grammar, style, formatting, and citations provides structured learning.

Analyzing Sample Texts

Studying well-written texts helps in observing how conventions are applied in professional or academic writing.

Utilizing Writing Centers or Tutors

Seeking guidance from writing centers or tutors offers personalized assistance in understanding and applying conventions effectively.

Final Thoughts on Understanding Conventions in Writing

Understanding conventions in English is like learning the secret codes of effective communication. It’s more than just following rules; it’s about wielding a powerful toolkit to make your words shine. These conventions like grammar, punctuation, formatting, and citations aren’t mere guidelines;. Instead, they’re the building blocks that shape your writing.

We are pretty certain that by mastering these conventions, you transform your writing into a clear, coherent, and impactful medium. They provide structure, ensuring your ideas flow seamlessly, and your message is easily understood. Embracing these norms allows your voice to resonate confidently, whether in academic papers, creative works, or professional documents.

Hopefully, this blog post was of great help in making you understand the conventions in writing.

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Essay Writing Guide

Writing Conventions

Writing Conventions - Definition, Tips & Examples

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Writing can be tough, can't it? Making sure everything's just right, from spelling to grammar and how it all looks on the page, can really make your head spin.

But don't worry; we're here to help you out. 

We've put together this complete and easy guide to writing conventions for you. Whether you're tackling a school assignment, a work project, or something personal, we've got your back.

So, stick around, and let's polish those writing skills together!

• 1. What are Writing Conventions?
• 2. Essential Writing Conventions 2024 
• 3. Writing Conventions For Specific Genres
• 4. Writing Conventions Checklist

What are Writing Conventions?

Writing conventions are language rules that help readers to understand the text easily. These conventions are basically the elements that can help you make your writing clear and understandable. 

Conventions in writing serve as the basis for readers to understand the message. In middle school, teachers might not be very strict when it comes to writing conventions but later on, this is not the case. 

Although the specific conventions may vary depending on language and context, the writing conventions definition remains the same for all languages.

Importance of Writing Conventions

If you're a high school or college student, it's very important to know how to use these rules.

Writing conventions are essential tools because they ensure your writing communicates effectively. They provide clarity, professionalism, and understanding to your text, making it easier for readers to understand your viewpoint. 

Using proper grammar, punctuation, and structure is not just a standard practice for academic and professional writing. It also ensures your writing clearly gets your point across in a logical flow, helping readers better connect with the text.

Essential Writing Conventions 2024 

The basic writing conventions include grammar, spelling, and punctuation. Each serves a different purpose and should be mastered for essay writing or any kind of research paper to be of the best quality. 

In this section, we will look at English writing conventions with examples and how they should be used. 

Spelling mistakes are a common stumbling block in writing. These errors can make your writing appear less polished and less credible. Here are some of the most common spelling mistakes to watch out for:

• Their/There/They're: Mixing up these homophones can lead to confusion. "Their" shows possession (e.g., It's their book), "there" indicates a location (e.g., It's over there), and "they're" is a contraction of "they are" (e.g., They're coming).
• Your/You're: These are often confused. "Your" is possessive (e.g., Your car), while "you're" is a contraction of "you are" (e.g., You're talented).
• Its/It's: Similar to the previous pair, "its" is possessive (e.g., The cat licked its paw), while "it's" is a contraction of "it is" or "it has" (e.g., It's raining).

Punctuation

Your writing gains clarity and becomes more understandable with the use of proper punctuation. Have a look at the following sentence as an example. 

 "I love cooking my family and my pets."

Not that easy to follow, right? It seems like the person enjoys preparing their family and pets for a meal. Whereas, looking at this punctuated sentence, it makes much more sense:

"I love cooking , my family , and my pets."

Punctuation allows us to read something the way it is meant. Punctuation helps us to know when to stop when to read when to pause, and when to start a new sentence.

Capitalization

Capitalization means that a new sentence starts when something has a proper name or a title. 

The rules for capitalization are straightforward and easy to understand. Following are the contexts where you should capitalize:

• The first word of a sentence.
• Proper nouns, which include names of people, places, countries, cities, and specific things.
• Titles of books, movies, songs, and artistic works.
• Days of the week and months.
• Names of holidays.
• Historical events.
• Geographical regions.
• Institutions and organizations.
• Religions and their followers.
• Brands and trademarks.
• Names of languages.
• Initials and acronyms.
• The pronoun "I."
• Court titles and family titles are used as names.

Grammar means how to change the word structure to come up with a coherent and understandable sentence. Keep in mind that speaking and writing are two different things when it comes to grammar. 

You should be consistent in time usage and well versed in the present perfect and past simple. Otherwise, your reader might be unsure about the time frame or sequence of events described.

Here are some key grammar conventions to keep in mind:

• Subject-verb agreement
• Tense consistency
• Proper use of articles (a, an, the)
• Avoiding sentence fragments
• Correct use of pronouns
• Punctuation and sentence structure
• Avoiding run-on sentences
• Comma usage
• Correct use of verb forms
• Agreement of adjectives and nouns
• Active voice vs. Passive voice

Paragraphing or Formatting

Paragraphing and formatting are important aspects of writing that enhance readability and organization. Good use of paragraphs and formatting elements helps break up text into manageable chunks and guides the reader through the content. 

Here are some key considerations for paragraphing and formatting:

• Start New Topics with New Paragraphs: Transition to a new idea or topic by beginning a new paragraph. 
• Keep Paragraphs Concise: Aim for 3-5 sentences per paragraph. Shorter paragraphs are easier to digest and maintain reader interest.
• Use Visual Separation: Indentation or line breaks between body paragraphs visually separate them, making your text more reader-friendly.
• Stay Consistent: Maintain uniformity in paragraph length and formatting throughout your writing. Consistency aids comprehension.
• Use Lists for Clarity: Present information efficiently with bullet points or numbered lists, especially for listing items or steps.
• Employ Subheadings: Break up longer sections of text with subheadings to guide readers and highlight key points.

Writing Conventions For Specific Genres

Different genres have their own set of rules and principles to follow, but there are some common features that all texts share, such as spelling, punctuation, and grammar.

Below are some genre-specific writing conventions for your help. 

Narrative Writing Conventions

A narrative essay is a type of text that tells a story. This might be in the form of a book, movie, or TV show. A story typically has characters, speech, and a clear structure. 

Sometimes people plan their writing using a story mountain structure, which means that their narrative will have a clear introduction, build-up, climax, resolution, and ending. If you are reading a text and see these features, you can be sure that it is a narrative.

Persuasive Writing Conventions

Persuasive essays aim to change the reader's mind to agree with the author's point of view. The way to do this is by having a clear point of view in the introduction and conclusion. The text will also include facts and figures, emotive language, and rhetorical questions.

Letter Writing Conventions

When you are reading a letter, you can look for clues to help you understand what type of text it is. Letters will have an address in the top right-hand corner, as well as a date and a greeting. Letters are usually written in paragraphs, and they will usually finish with a sign-off such as “Yours Sincerely” .  

Script Writing Conventions 

Script writing is the process of writing down what happens in a movie, including the movement, actions, expression, and dialogue of the characters.

There are different ways to write a story. When you write for the screen, you need to use a certain formatting style. This is so that your story can be told visually. 

Teaching Writing Convention

Teaching writing conventions is about guiding learners through the rules and norms of writing in a clear and inspiring way. It involves explaining basics like spelling and grammar while showing why these conventions matter. 

For example, you might teach them how to use commas correctly by showing how they change the meaning of a sentence: "Let's eat, Grandma!" versus "Let's eat Grandma!" 

It's all about helping students see the power of precision in their writing.

Here's a sample PDF illustrating writing conventions.

Writing Conventions Checklist

To become a skillful writer, the best approach is to plan ahead and start early. For elementary students, it is important to be aware of some basic writing style tips, but for higher education, it is essential to have a good grasp of these writing conventions. 

Here's a final writing convention rubric to ensure your writing maintains quality and room for improvement:

Writing Conventions Recommendations 

Different types of writing have different rules. For example, how you write in a text message differs from how you write an essay. And how you write an essay is different from how you write poetry.

The following are some basic English language convention tips that you can use for your help.

• Do not use fragments in your writing.
• When mentioning a person's name for the first time, always spell it out in the full form.
• Consider punctuation marks when writing.
• Abbreviations should be avoided.
• Cite your sources correctly.

Wrapping it up,

Now you know what the formal writing conventions in writing are. Keep in mind that the conventions checklist should be the final stage in the editing process. 

When you are done with the writing and revising process and are ready to hand in your essay, you should check your essay for writing conventions. In this way, you can avoid basic writing problems and ensure that your paper is as perfect as it can be. 

However, if you need professional help with various types of writing assignments, you can always reach out to our essay writing help online . Our expert writers are qualified and experienced in academic writing, so you can count on them to deliver error-free papers every time.

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6 Academic Conventions of Structure, Style, and Format

One reason we ask students to take composition classes is to introduce them to academic conventions. In this context, “conventions” just means “normal ways of doing things.” Knowing and practicing these conventions will help you be successful in writing across many of your classes.

I find it useful to make a distinction between “conventions” and “rules.” There are actually very few hard rules about academic writing, with the exception of avoiding plagiarism. Otherwise, you can find exceptions to every rule you’ve likely been taught about what is “allowed” in your academic writing. As you progress in your academic career, you’ll start to develop a feel for the norms within your chosen discipline, and those may vary somewhat from what this chapter describes. However, the aim of this chapter is to equip you with a basic understanding of the most common expectations. Think of them as your “safe bet” guidelines; even when other approaches may be allowed, adhering to these conventions is often the path of least risk. Of course, if another professor explicitly asks you to do something different for their assignments, do that instead!

Explicitness

Most of the conventions for academic writing can be traced back to a demand for explicitness. In this context, “explicit” just means that everything is spelled out and explained really clearly. A few key elements of explicitness might be helpful to keep in mind:

• State your main idea up front, and then provide the evidence and rationale for it.
• Be clear and direct in your wording.
• Explain your logic and thought processes, particularly when you are presenting evidence to support a point.

Closed-Form Structure

Most academic writing follows a standard organizational pattern that consists of introduction, body, and conclusion. These sections consist of at least one paragraph each, though the body of the essay almost always should have multiple paragraphs. Depending on the genre, the body of the essay may also be further subdivided into sections.

Keep in mind that the length of each section (introduction, body, conclusion) will vary depending on the overall length of the work. There is no set rule for how long any given section or how long a paragraph must be; however, in academic writing, paragraphs are often longer than they are in popular writing. If you notice your writing has many short paragraphs, that can be a sign that you need to either consolidate ideas or that you are under-explaining your ideas!

Paragraphs, by the way, are both visual and conceptual divisions. In a typed essay, a new paragraph is traditionally indicated by the text starting on a new indented line. That visual indicator is a cue to the reader that the topic is also shifting. Academic readers rely on that visual cue and will be confused if it’s missing, but they will also be confused if the visual cue is there but doesn’t line up with a shift in topic. No matter how formal the assignment, it’s a great idea to follow paragraph conventions, even if your professor hasn’t explicitly asked for them. They’re so expected in academic writing that many people wouldn’t even think to ask; they just assume you know to do it.

Here is an outline showing the most conventional closed-form structure:

Introduction – introduces the question or issue that the essay will address; provides relevant background information; closes with thesis statement. May be a single paragraph for a short essay, but often consists of multiple paragraphs for longer works. Body – develops, in multiple paragraphs, support for and explanation of the thesis statement Conclusion – discusses the broader significance or application of the thesis statement. May be a single paragraph for a short essay, but often consists of multiple paragraphs for longer works.

Note: You can find more about how to write introductions and conclusions in the chapter on  Introductions & Conclusions , and more about how to write body paragraphs in the chapter on Thesis Statements, Topic Sentences, and Body Paragraphs .

Thesis Statements

The thesis statement is possibly the most important element of closed-form writing. This statement sums up the main idea of your essay; it’s your answer to the question you presented in the introduction of the essay. You can even think of the thesis as the “elevator pitch” for your essay. For shorter essays, the thesis statement is typically a single sentence, and although longer works occasionally have multiple-sentences or even full paragraphs, it is good practice for you to aim for a single sentence. You can find more on thesis statements here: Thesis Statements, Topic Sentences, and Body Paragraphs .

Topic Sentences

Each body paragraph will typically begin with a topic sentence that sums up the main point of the paragraph. Topic sentences are handy because readers can easily get a sense of the paper’s ideas just by reading the first sentence of each paragraph. You can find out more about topic sentences in the chapter on Thesis Statements, Topic Sentences, and Body Paragraphs .

Writing Style

Academic writing also has conventions for style. It’s important to be aware that these conventions can vary quite a bit across different disciplines and genres, just as structure does. However, there are some basic expectations that it’s useful to know. You can find much more detailed recommendations about writing style in the Academic Style chapter, including examples demonstrating each of the characteristics listed below.

• Conciseness  – You might think of academic writing as “wordy,” but actually, academic writing tends to be more direct and more concise. Academic writing is very carefully edited to avoid wasted words.
• Complexity – Although academic writing is edited to be concise, it also tends to use more complex sentence structures and transitions. These stylistic choices relate back to the idea of academic writing being explicit; that is, how ideas relate to each other must be expressed clearly and thoroughly. In academic writing, we’re careful not to assume that readers will know what we mean.
• Precision –  Academic writing avoids generalities; it aims to be as precise as possible, especially when referring to dates, times, and measurements.
• Point of View  – Academic writing typically uses third person, with first person used in limited circumstances. Second person (“you”) is never considered appropriate for academic writing.
• Formality  – Academic writing avoids wording that might be considered “slangy” or “casual,” aiming instead for more sophisticated language.

Manuscript Formatting

In almost every circumstance, you will be expected to type your papers for college classes. Although some formatting guidelines (such as preferred fonts or placement of page numbers) will vary across different disciplines or classes, you can anticipate that your essays should:

• Be typed in a conventional, easily readable typeface
• Be double-spaced
• Use indentions to indicate where new paragraphs begin
• Include a title that is specific to the paper’s content (not just “Essay 1” or “Final Draft”)

You can find detailed formatting guidelines in whatever style guide your instructor recommends (MLA or APA), or online. Those guidelines will dictate all kinds of details, such as:

• The size of your margins
• The acceptable typefaces and sizes you may use
• How to format your title and heading information
• How to format your page numbers
• How to correctly incorporate and label images, charts, graphs, and tables

Following these conventions is a way of telling your readers that you know the ropes and should be taken seriously in this academic context, so it’s important to learn what they are.

First-Year English Composition Copyright © by Alissa Nephew. All Rights Reserved.

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Basic Writing Conventions

Updated 03 Sep 2024

If you are a student or are planning to become one in future, you’re definitely going to learn how to write essays. At the moment, you might be unable to even define conventions in writing, but putting ideas on paper and submitting them doesn’t seem overly complicated, right? Except it is, which is why mastering writing conventions is so important.

Writing conventions’ definition varies but in general, it concerns ability to make text understandable and easy to read. For that, it should flow smoothly: all commas, hyphens, dashes, periods must be in their proper places. The meaning of ideas must also be clear, without following rules, just won’t achieve good results. On the other hand, by sticking to them, you’ll ensure that professor gives great grades, which in turn will positively affect studies and even professional future. Of course, such strict requirements can be hard to achieve in the short term and reliable dissertation help online from a professional team can be your choice.

What are Conventions in Writing?

Let’s define writing conventions first. They are language rules that enable readers to understand text. They serve as signposts for readers or provide familiar ground for understanding what message says. The conventions activate meaning, also show how to read the text. In middle school, teachers might be lenient, but later, it won’t be the case. If you are to become student of Harvard University, for example, having a good grasp on grammar, sentence structure, language in general is a must. It’s not possible without practice, meaning that students need lots of completed papers across their curriculum.

With their tough schedules, loads of home assignments, extracurricular work, it is not a surprise that they constantly complain about learning required subjects as they move through grades. When it comes to any task, they feel even more stressed to find the just-right words to carry their message. Being required to follow basic conventions of spelling, punctuation, grammar is additional trouble, which is why one should know when to ask for help.

Main Writing Conventions

The biggest groups of writing conventions include grammar, spelling, as well as punctuation. Each has its own relevance that should be mastered fully for essays to be of the best quality. You must have faced some texts that were not understandable at least once in life. Sure, they could be tough due to the complexity of the topic, but chances are, they were just badly written.

Grammar means knowing how to change the forms of words, as well as combine them into coherent sentences. You might scoff and think that understand when to add -ed or when to use gerund as it is, but the truth is, speaking and writing are two different things. You should be consistent in time usage, as well as a sense difference between Present Perfect and Past Simple extremely well. Otherwise, audience may be unsure about selected time-frame or about sequence of actions described.

Spelling is another crucial convention of writing. Imagine reading a story about a dark, cruel protagonist. His coldness is piercing and find immersed into text only to see ‘distain’ written instead of ‘disdain’. Just like that, impression crumbles. The character who seemed intimidating now seems illiterate. So, spelling is a vital part of proper writing conventions.   

Punctuation in Writing Conventions

Punctuation is also important in conventions of writing. Commas mean pausing, and if you overuse them, you will confuse readers. Hyphens and dashes should be distinguished, especially if you want top grades for essays. Naturally, there is such thing as a personal style, and every writer can have his or her own peculiarities. The only problem here is, such explanations may be applied in some instances in fiction, but it won’t be accepted by teachers. Academic standards exist for a reason. If one argues that you’ve put ellipses after every other sentence because it’s your quirk, you are likely to fail assignment. There is a set of rules that you’ll should obey, be effective in going around them for creative purposes, first you must actually master them.

It’s great if you have someone teaching all this stuff, but if you don’t, you are going to need lots of practice. Theory is also important because it helps learn all do’s and don’ts.  

Writing Conventions Recommendations  

Language rules vary with the content and genre. Peer audience accepts conventions in text messaging or emailing differently from those of formal essays, for example. Informal and shortened words or incomprehensible symbols in emails cannot be accepted by teacher, so what you use on Facebook or language Hollywood characters speak will not fly with Yale professor. Similarly, the weave of rules used in essays significantly differs from poetry composing.

Here are basic tips on Standard English conventions for college essay:

• Write in complete sentences.
• Avoid run-on sentences.
• Don’t use fragments.
• Write person’s entire name first time you mention it.
• Stay away from abbreviations.
• Consider punctuation marks.
• Put a citation correctly.

The Final Convention Checklist For Elementary Students

To become a proficient writer, it’s best to start early. Elementary students should be aware of some basic writing conventions tips, but regardless of age, make sure that your writing is of quality or has a chance to improve, it’s important to have a final convention checklist. What should be included there?

You can proofread text or ask someone you trust to do it. Prepare a checklist using the checklist app so it’d be much easier to catch mistakes. Is there time consistency in your composing or do you jump between past and present? Do all sentences start with a capital letter? Do all sentences end with a period or a question mark? Is spelling correct, do you use ‘they are’ and ‘their’ properly?      

Remember that conventions checking should be final step in your editing process. Only when essay is finished entirely and you think you’re ready to submit it should you check writing conventions. This will ensure that your paper is as polished as it can get.

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Crafting Essays By Following All Writing Conventions

Now you know what writing conventions are, why they are important, how to use them properly in text. Check your writing when you finish essays, create a checklist to facilitate process, and keep improving. Still, even knowing all this doesn’t mean you’re going to write excellently. Being capable of composing in accordance with spelling, punctuation, and grammar conventions is a real challenge.  

If you’re stuck with essay, unsure whether is corresponds to writing conventions and if it meets the requirements, you might need some help. It’s completely natural and many students pick this option. You can ask entire essay written by professionals who are guaranteed to take all instructions and writing conventions into consideration. In addition, you may ask to have essay you’ve already written rated or edited so you could get the best mark. Whatever you need, we’ll help.  

With Edubirdie.com, you don’t need to worry about anything. We are here to meet all challenges. Here’s list of benefits that’ll prove why you should choose our services in case you need some help.

• We hire only native English speakers who can boast about impressive experience and extraordinary talent. Possessing Ph.D. or Master’s degree, writers create any types of essay writing with a sophisticated control of the Standard English conversions of grammar, spelling, punctuation, and word usage. Careful planning, deep thinking, and thorough editing are our main priorities.
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Don’t hesitate and order from top rated writers with effective use of writing conventions from us. You will impress professor and see what proper writing conventions look like. It’ll greatly help you in future essays.

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Encyclopedia

Writing with artificial intelligence, academic writing – how to write for the academic community.

• © 2023 by Joseph M. Moxley - Professor of English - USF

Academic writing refers to the writing style that researchers, educators, and students use in scholarly publications and school assignments. An academic writing style refers to the semantic and textual features that characterize academic writing and distinguish it from other discourses , such as professional writing , workplace writing , fiction , or creative nonfiction . Learn about the discourse conventions of the academic community so you can write with greater authority , clarity , and persuasiveness (and, in school settings, earn higher grades!).  

Table of Contents

What is Academic Writing?

Academic writing refers to all of the texts produced by academic writers, including theoretical, empirical , or experience-based works. Examples:

• Students at the high school and undergraduate level write essays, book reviews, lab reports, reviews of literature, proposals–and more . These assignments often presume an audience of a teacher-as-examiner
• by proposing a new theory, method, application
• by presenting new empirical findings
• by offering new interpretations of existing evidence .

Different academic fields have distinct genres , writing styles and conventions because each academic field possesses its own set of rules and practices that govern how ideas are researched , structured , supported , and communicated . Thus, there is no one single style of academic writing. Rather, there are many different writing styles a writer might adopt , depending on their aims of discourse , media , writing tools, and rhetorical situation .

Related Concepts: Audience – Audience Awareness ; Discourse Community – Community of Practice ; Discourse Conventions ; Elements of Style ; Genre ; Professional Writing – Style Guide ; Persona ; Rhetorical Stance ; Tone ; Voice

Differences aside, there are a number of discourse conventions that academic writers share across disciplines. These conventions empower writers to establish authority and clarity in their prose –and to craft pieces that can be understood and appreciated by readers from various academic fields as well as the general public.

Features of Academic Discourse

• Academic writing tends to be  substantive  rather than superficial,  anecdotal ,  vague or underdeveloped.  For example, a paper on climate change would not just describe the observed changes in temperature, but might also delve into the scientific theories that explain these changes, the evidence supporting these theories, the potential impacts of climate change, and the debates within the scientific community
• Academic writing prioritizes evidence and logical reasoning over anecdotal observations , personal opinions, personal beliefs emotional appeals
• Members of the academic community expect authors to provide evidence for claims . When academics introduce evidence into their texts, they know their readers expect them to establish the currency, relevance ,  authority , accuracy , and purpose of any evidence they introduce
• Academic writers are careful to support their claims with evidence from credible sources, especially peer-reviewed , academic literature.
• Academics are sensitive to the ideologies and epistemologies that inform research methods.
• For example, when a psychology student studies the effects of mindfulness on anxiety disorders, they would need to understand that their research is based on the assumption that anxiety can be measured and quantified, and that it can be influenced by interventions like mindfulness training. They would also need to understand that their research is situated within a particular theoretical framework (e.g., cognitive-behavioral theory), which shapes how they conceptualize anxiety, mindfulness, and the relationship between them.
• Academic writing is expected to be objective and fair–and free of bias . This means presenting evidence in a balanced way, considering different perspectives , and not letting personal biases distort the analysis.
• It also involves recognizing the limitations of the research and being open to criticism and alternative interpretations .
• Academic writers are very careful to attribute the works of authors whom they’re quoting , paraphrasing , or summarizing . They understand information has value , and they’re careful to discern who the major thought leaders are on a particular topic . They understand they cannot simply copy and paste large sections of copyrighted material into their own work, even if they provide an attribution .
• Academic writers must also abide copyright laws , which protect the rights of authors and creators. This means, for example, that they cannot simply copy and paste large sections of copyrighted material into their own work, even if they provide a citation . Instead, they can use smaller excerpts under the principle of “fair use,” or they can seek permission from the copyright holder to use larger portions.

Organization

Academic writing is typically organized in a deductive way (as opposed to inductively ). Many genresof academic writing have a research abstract, a clear introduction , body, conclusions and recommendations.

Academic essays tend to have an introduction that introduces the topic, the exigency that informs this call to write. reviews pertinent research, and explains the problem — hypothesis, thesis, and rhetorical situation. the context and states the purpose of the writing (aka, the thesis! ), the body develops the arguments or presents the research, and the conclusion summarizes the main points and discusses the implications or applications of the research

Typically, the design of academic documents is plain vanilla, despite the visual turn in communication made possible by the ubiquity of design tools. Unlike professional writing, which tends to be incredibly visual, academic writing tends to be fairly traditional with its focus on alphabetical text as opposed to visual elements.

• Plain Design: Academic documents, such as research papers, theses, or scholarly articles, typically follow a minimalist design approach. They primarily consist of black text on a white background, with a standard, easy-to-read font. This “plain vanilla” design reflects the focus of academic writing on the content rather than the presentation. The aim is to communicate complex ideas clearly and without distraction.
• Limited Use of Visuals: Unlike in professional writing or journalism, visuals such as images, infographics, or videos are not commonly used in academic writing. When they are used, it’s usually to present data (in the form of graphs, charts, or tables) or to illustrate a point (with diagrams or figures). The visuals are typically grayscale and are intended to supplement the text rather than replace it.
• Structured Layout: Academic writing tends to follow a structured layout, with clearly marked sections and subsections. This helps to organize the content and guide the reader through the argument. However, aside from headings, there is usually little use of design elements such as color, bolding, or varied fonts to highlight different parts of the text.
• Lack of Interactive Features: With the transition to digital media, many types of writing have become more interactive, incorporating hyperlinks, multimedia, or interactive data visualizations. However, academic writing has been slower to adopt these features. While academic articles often include hyperlinks to references, they rarely include other interactive elements.

However, as digital media and visual communication become increasingly prevalent, we may see changes in the conventions of academic design.

• Academic writing tends to be formal in persona , tone , diction . Academic writers avoid contractions , slang, colloquial expressions, sexist use of pronouns . Because it is written for specialists, jargon is used, but not unnecessarily. However, the level of formality can vary depending on the discipline, the genre (e.g., a research paper vs. a blog post), and the intended audience . For instance, in sociology and communication, autoethnography is a common genre , which is a composite of autobiography , memoir, creative nonfiction, and ethnographic methods .
• In the last 20 years, there has been a significant move toward including the first person in academic writing. However, in general, the focus of discourse isn’t the writer. Thus, most academic writers use the first person sparingly–if at all.
• Academic writers use the citation styles required by their audiences .
• Specialized Vocabulary: Academics often use specialized vocabulary or jargon that is specific to their field. These terms can convey complex ideas in a compact form, contributing to the compressed nature of academic prose. However, they can also make the writing less accessible to non-specialists.
• Complex Sentence Structures: Academic writing often uses complex sentence structures, such as long sentences with multiple clauses, or sentences that incorporate lists or parenthetical information. These structures allow academic writers to express complex relationships and nuances of meaning, but they can also make the writing more challenging to read.
• Referential Density: Academic writing often refers to other works, theories, or arguments, either explicitly (through citations) or implicitly. This referential density allows academic writers to build on existing knowledge and engage in scholarly conversation, but it also assumes that readers are familiar with the referenced works or ideas.

1. When is it appropriate to use the first person?

Use of the first person is now more commonplace across academic disciplines. In order to determine whether first person is appropriate, engage in rhetorical analysis of the rhetorical situation .

Recommended Resources

• Professional Writing Prose Style
• First-Person Point of View
• Using First Person in an Academic Essay: When is It Okay?
• A Synthesis of Professor Perspectives on Using First and Third Person in Academic Writing

Brevity - Say More with Less

Clarity (in Speech and Writing)

Coherence - How to Achieve Coherence in Writing

Flow - How to Create Flow in Writing

Inclusivity - Inclusive Language

The Elements of Style - The DNA of Powerful Writing

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Structured Revision – How to Revise Your Work

Professional Writing – How to Write for the Professional World

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Citation Guide – Learn How to Cite Sources in Academic and Professional Writing

Page Design – How to Design Messages for Maximum Impact

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9 Most Common Writing Conventions Writers Must Follow

Writers must follow specific rules to make their writing make sense, and those rules are called writing conventions.

Writing conventions are rules that writers follow that give their writing meaning and clarity. Students often study these rules in school, but they also become part of test prep programs. All writers, even established ones, can benefit from brushing up on these writing conventions.

When studying writing conventions, writers should learn both the main writing conventions and ones for specific genres, such as narrative writing or letter writing. Once you grasp these rules fully, you will be able to make written works that people can understand clearly. There are nine writing conventions worth looking into as you learn to be a better writer.

1. Spelling

3. punctuation, 4. capitalization, 5. formal writing conventions, 6. letter writing conventions, 7. narrative writing conventions, 8. persuasive writing conventions, 9. instructional writing conventions, a final word on writing conventions, what do writing conventions mean, what are the conventions of writing.

Spelling errors make English writing challenging to understand. As part of the writing process, you must be able to spell correctly. Spelling is also one of the most important self-editing skills.

Correct spelling gets tricky when it comes to homophones, which are words that sound the same but have different spellings and meanings. For example, you need to know the difference between which and witch when Halloween time rolls around, or you might confuse your readers.

Read our guide to common spelling rules .

Grammar refers to the sentence structure, subject-verb agreement, tenses, and other aspects of building sentences and paragraphs that make sense. The standard English grammar rules are something most people learn in middle school and high school, but they remain essential conventions of writing that help your written works convey meaning properly.

Some common grammar rules that you will want to follow as you build your writing skill include:

• Always writing complete sentences
• Having proper subject/verb and pronoun/antecedent agreement
• Avoiding passive voice, when possible
• Not writing run-on sentences
• Understanding parts of speech and using them correctly
• When to use “a” versus “an” to describe a noun

Tip: Buy the best grammar checker you can afford.

Knowing where to put periods, commas, question marks, semicolons, quotation marks, and exclamation points are all critical to correct grammar usage. You’ll also want to know where parentheses, dashes and ellipses go, and how to use them properly. This is one of the fundamental writing conventions because it is vital to the meaning of sentences.

For example, you could say:

• Let’s eat Grandma.

However, if you did, someone might call the authorities. If you say instead:

• Let’s eat, Grandma.

Then you will be a thoughtful grandchild inviting your grandmother to dinner. 

Read our guide to grammar and punctuation .

Capitalization rules  are the fourth of the four main writing conventions. In any piece of writing, you need to know when to capitalize. Common capitalization rules include:

• Capitalize the first word in every new sentence
• Capitalize acronyms
• Capitalize proper names and proper nouns
• Capitalize words in a title, except for short prepositions and articles
• Capitalize days, months and holidays
• Capitalize the first word in a quote after the quotation mark
• Capitalize most time periods and major world events

Writing formal text for academic settings has its own set of rules. While teachers and writing style guides set these, some that are common across different schools and guides include:

• Avoid contractions
• Avoid nicknames
• Avoid slang
• Follow the style guide for the particular class or setting

When writing a letter, follow the rules for letter writing. These include:

• Place the address in the top right corner of the page.
• Use the date
• Open with a greeting, such as “Dear Sir,”
• Sign the letter

A narrative is a short story or book that includes characters and dialogue. When writing this, you will follow a pattern that consists of the introduction, climax, resolution and ending. Use proper grammar to showcase speech, but don’t be afraid to include dialect to make it more realistic.

A persuasive text tries to convince the reader to agree with the author or to take action. It needs to have a clear point of view, and will often use emotive language or rhetorical questions to cause the reader to think. Typically, persuasive writing combines logic with emotion so to convince a reader of a point of view. It is common in personal essays, journalism and self-help.

Learn more about persuasive writing .

Instructional writing gives step-by-step instructions that tell the reader how to do something. Some of the conventions that apply to this genre include:

• Use chronological order
• Add imperative verb commands, like “make” or “stir”
• Write in numbered lists to help the reader follow the steps

Writing conventions make English writing understandable. By following these rules, you can make the right word choice and choose the correct sentence structure to make your writing understandable and clear.

While writing conventions may seem obvious, it’s always good to brush up on them before sitting down to write. They are also vital to most school exams and college placement tests, which makes writing conventions an important part of most test prep resources.

Whether you are a seasoned writer or a student, learning these writing conventions, and learning them well, will only serve to help you write more accurately.

FAQs About Writing Conventions

Writing conventions are the rules that writers must follow. They create clarity and give writing the correct meaning.

The four major writing conventions include grammar, spelling, punctuation and capitalization. Writers also follow genre-specific writing conventions.

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• Style and Conventions

Why It Matters

Given the diversity of assignment types, disciplinary “flavors,” and student backgrounds all working together in any Gen Ed course, assignment prompts should specify whatever style guidelines (e.g., degrees of formality, citation styles, norms around grammar, etc.) that students are expected to follow. How much emphasis is placed on these guidelines and where they show up in the prompt should

• reflect their relative importance to the assignment’s goals and
• be consistent with the instruction and feedback students will receive.

More on "Style and Conventions"

When prompts give students guidance about whether to use MLA, APA, or Chicago style, or emphasize the need for correct grammar and usage, they typically don’t say why. In fact, citation and stylistic conventions are functions of other elements such as genre and audience, and it’s both equitable and intellectually non-trivial to explain to students their relative importance within a writing assignment as a whole.

That being said, it’s useful for designers to consider how important these conventions in fact are, given the goals of an assignment: If they’re really important, they should probably show up earlier in the prompt (where they often do show up) and they should be substantially reflected in your feedback/grading rubric—in which case you should make sure there’s time in the course dedicated to teaching them and be sure your teaching team are all on the same page about what feedback/grading on this front should look like (since grammar and style are perhaps the area of greatest debate and inconsistency among teachers who are giving students feedback on written assignments).

What It Looks Like

• Histories, Societies, Individuals
• Science & Technology in Society
• Ethics & Civics

DATE: April 9, 2020 TO: GENED1008 Class Members [1] FROM: Prof. M. Cammett RE: Policy Memorandum Assignment

A SSIGNMENT

Style and Format

- Do not include a cover sheet; instead, use the format at the outset of this document (i.e., “Date,” “To,” “From,” “Re:”);   [1] - Follow conventions of memo format, notably headings for sub-sections and bullet points for a list of items [2] ; - Remain within the page limits. Memos that exceed the assigned length often fail to establish priorities clearly;   [3] - Do not include footnotes or bibliography. [4]  If you use supporting information in a memo, reference the source in the text. For example, you might refer to some research to support an assertion and support it as follows: “A 2010 Gallup Survey showed. . . .”   [5] 

__________ [1] Specific guidance about the style sheet for this assignment, including a model [2] Formatting advice tied to the conventions of the genre at hand [3] A specific guideline that’s explained in terms of a) the purpose of the genre and b) its intended audience [4] Citation guidance that's helpful in so far as it might strike many students as counterintuitive (Don’t include a bibliography?!) [5]  An explanation and model for citing sources in the genre at hand 

Adapted from Gen Ed 1008 : Power and Identity in the Middle East | Spring 2020 Professor Melani Cammett

STEP 1: PROPOSAL WITH ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Length: 250–500 words, not including annotated bibliography. The annotated bibliography must have at least 5 different references from outside the course and 5 different references from the syllabus.

Source requirements:

• Minimum 5 different references from outside the course (at least 3 must be peer-reviewed scholarly sources)
• Minimum 5 different references from Gen Ed 1093 reading assignments listed on the syllabus; lectures do not count toward the reference requirement, and Reimagining Global Health will only count as one reference
• Citation format either AAA or APA, consistent throughout the paper   [1]
• Careful attention to academic integrity and appropriate citation practices
• The annotated bibliography does not count toward your word count, but in-text citations do.

Due: Monday, November 16, at 5 PM, on Canvas.

__________ [1]  Guidance on citation style is included with other guidelines for the assignment. Students are given a choice between two styles, the American Anthropological Association (AAA) and the American Psychological Association (APA), but they are asked to apply whichever style they choose consistently throughout the proposal and annotated bibliography.

Adapted from Gen Ed 1093 : Who Lives, Who Dies, Who Cares? Reimagining Global Health | Fall 2020

[The following example pairs excerpts from an essay prompt and a grading rubric]  

from the Paper #1 Assignment prompt

You will be graded according to the rubric on the course website. [1]  Please make sure to follow the guidelines on this assignment and ask your TF if you have any questions.

from the Grading Rubric for Written Work 

Clarity and Style

• Is there a clear thesis/stance?
• Is the essay well written? (Topic sentences, clear transitions, proper formatting, interesting to read)
• Is the essay succinct? (no rambling paragraphs or “filler” that does not clearly relate to the thesis)
• Are facts/claims properly cited (including a references or “works cited” list at the end?)   [2]
• Is there a clear conclusion that synthesizes the argument made?
• Have the guidelines on the paper assignment been followed?
• (For paper #2 on:) Are critiques from previous papers incorporated/improved on?

__________ [1]  Students are given clear guidance on how the assignment will be graded: there's a rubric, and students know where to find it.  [2]  The "style" section of the rubric reflects the assignment's priorities: the clarity of the thesis, overall concision, and proper citation are relatively more important, for example, than how well the conclusion synthesizes the student's argument. 

Adapted from Gen Ed 1064 : Brains, Identity, and Moral Agency | Spring 2020 Professor Steven Hyman

The Final Report

If you are accompanying your report with a device demonstration or composition performance, the recommended length is 2000 words. If you are writing a research report without a demonstration or composition, the recommended length is 3000-4000 words.

Your report must include proper references (for example, device creation must reference any related prior art; compositions should reference related pieces and artists in similar genres; and research papers should include references to academic texts or journals).   [1]

__________ [1] For assignments that give students the option to work in different modalities, the guidelines and most appropriate stylistic conventions are likely to vary. Here the prompt is clear that every report must include proper references, but it also offers guidance about what counts as "proper," depending on which modalities a student is working in. 

Adapted from Gen Ed 1080 : Engineering the Acoustical World | Fall 2020 Professor Robert Wood

More annotations for these examples of "What it Looks Like" coming soon

• DIY Guides for Analytical Writing Assignments

• Types of Assignments
• Evidence and Analysis
• Specific Guidelines
• Advice on Process
• Giving Feedback to Students

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• Academic writing

What Is Academic Writing? | Dos and Don’ts for Students

Academic writing is a formal style of writing used in universities and scholarly publications. You’ll encounter it in journal articles and books on academic topics, and you’ll be expected to write your essays , research papers , and dissertation in academic style.

Academic writing follows the same writing process as other types of texts, but it has specific conventions in terms of content, structure and style.

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Table of contents

Types of academic writing, academic writing is…, academic writing is not…, useful tools for academic writing, academic writing checklist.

Academics mostly write texts intended for publication, such as journal articles, reports, books, and chapters in edited collections. For students, the most common types of academic writing assignments are listed below.

Different fields of study have different priorities in terms of the writing they produce. For example, in scientific writing it’s crucial to clearly and accurately report methods and results; in the humanities, the focus is on constructing convincing arguments through the use of textual evidence. However, most academic writing shares certain key principles intended to help convey information as effectively as possible.

Whether your goal is to pass your degree, apply to graduate school , or build an academic career, effective writing is an essential skill.

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Formal and unbiased

Academic writing aims to convey information in an impartial way. The goal is to base arguments on the evidence under consideration, not the author’s preconceptions. All claims should be supported with relevant evidence, not just asserted.

To avoid bias, it’s important to represent the work of other researchers and the results of your own research fairly and accurately. This means clearly outlining your methodology  and being honest about the limitations of your research.

The formal style used in academic writing ensures that research is presented consistently across different texts, so that studies can be objectively assessed and compared with other research.

Because of this, it’s important to strike the right tone with your language choices. Avoid informal language , including slang, contractions , clichés, and conversational phrases:

• Also , a lot of the findings are a little unreliable.
• Moreover , many of the findings are somewhat unreliable.

Clear and precise

It’s important to use clear and precise language to ensure that your reader knows exactly what you mean. This means being as specific as possible and avoiding vague language :

• People have been interested in this thing for a long time .
• Researchers have been interested in this phenomenon for at least 10 years .

Avoid hedging your claims with words like “perhaps,” as this can give the impression that you lack confidence in your arguments. Reflect on your word choice to ensure it accurately and directly conveys your meaning:

• This could perhaps suggest that…
• This suggests that…

Specialist language or jargon is common and often necessary in academic writing, which generally targets an audience of other academics in related fields.

However, jargon should be used to make your writing more concise and accurate, not to make it more complicated. A specialist term should be used when:

• It conveys information more precisely than a comparable non-specialist term.
• Your reader is likely to be familiar with the term.
• The term is commonly used by other researchers in your field.

The best way to familiarize yourself with the kind of jargon used in your field is to read papers by other researchers and pay attention to their language.

Focused and well structured

An academic text is not just a collection of ideas about a topic—it needs to have a clear purpose. Start with a relevant research question or thesis statement , and use it to develop a focused argument. Only include information that is relevant to your overall purpose.

A coherent structure is crucial to organize your ideas. Pay attention to structure at three levels: the structure of the whole text, paragraph structure, and sentence structure.

Well sourced

Academic writing uses sources to support its claims. Sources are other texts (or media objects like photographs or films) that the author analyzes or uses as evidence. Many of your sources will be written by other academics; academic writing is collaborative and builds on previous research.

It’s important to consider which sources are credible and appropriate to use in academic writing. For example, citing Wikipedia is typically discouraged. Don’t rely on websites for information; instead, use academic databases and your university library to find credible sources.

You must always cite your sources in academic writing. This means acknowledging whenever you quote or paraphrase someone else’s work by including a citation in the text and a reference list at the end.

There are many different citation styles with different rules. The most common styles are APA , MLA , and Chicago . Make sure to consistently follow whatever style your institution requires. If you don’t cite correctly, you may get in trouble for plagiarism . A good plagiarism checker can help you catch any issues before it’s too late.

You can easily create accurate citations in APA or MLA style using our Citation Generators.

APA Citation Generator MLA Citation Generator

Correct and consistent

As well as following the rules of grammar, punctuation, and citation, it’s important to consistently apply stylistic conventions regarding:

• How to write numbers
• Introducing abbreviations
• Using verb tenses in different sections
• Capitalization of terms and headings
• Spelling and punctuation differences between UK and US English

In some cases there are several acceptable approaches that you can choose between—the most important thing is to apply the same rules consistently and to carefully proofread your text before you submit. If you don’t feel confident in your own proofreading abilities, you can get help from Scribbr’s professional proofreading services or Grammar Checker .

Academic writing generally tries to avoid being too personal. Information about the author may come in at some points—for example in the acknowledgements or in a personal reflection—but for the most part the text should focus on the research itself.

Always avoid addressing the reader directly with the second-person pronoun “you.” Use the impersonal pronoun “one” or an alternate phrasing instead for generalizations:

• As a teacher, you must treat your students fairly.
• As a teacher, one must treat one’s students fairly.
• Teachers must treat their students fairly.

The use of the first-person pronoun “I” used to be similarly discouraged in academic writing, but it is increasingly accepted in many fields. If you’re unsure whether to use the first person, pay attention to conventions in your field or ask your instructor.

When you refer to yourself, it should be for good reason. You can position yourself and describe what you did during the research, but avoid arbitrarily inserting your personal thoughts and feelings:

• In my opinion…
• I think that…
• I like/dislike…
• I conducted interviews with…
• I argue that…
• I hope to achieve…

Long-winded

Many students think their writing isn’t academic unless it’s over-complicated and long-winded. This isn’t a good approach—instead, aim to be as concise and direct as possible.

If a term can be cut or replaced with a more straightforward one without affecting your meaning, it should be. Avoid redundant phrasings in your text, and try replacing phrasal verbs with their one-word equivalents where possible:

• Interest in this phenomenon carried on in the year 2018 .
• Interest in this phenomenon continued in 2018 .

Repetition is a part of academic writing—for example, summarizing earlier information in the conclusion—but it’s important to avoid unnecessary repetition. Make sure that none of your sentences are repeating a point you’ve already made in different words.

Emotive and grandiose

An academic text is not the same thing as a literary, journalistic, or marketing text. Though you’re still trying to be persuasive, a lot of techniques from these styles are not appropriate in an academic context. Specifically, you should avoid appeals to emotion and inflated claims.

Though you may be writing about a topic that’s sensitive or important to you, the point of academic writing is to clearly communicate ideas, information, and arguments, not to inspire an emotional response. Avoid using emotive or subjective language :

• This horrible tragedy was obviously one of the worst catastrophes in construction history.
• The injury and mortality rates of this accident were among the highest in construction history.

Students are sometimes tempted to make the case for their topic with exaggerated , unsupported claims and flowery language. Stick to specific, grounded arguments that you can support with evidence, and don’t overstate your point:

• Charles Dickens is the greatest writer of the Victorian period, and his influence on all subsequent literature is enormous.
• Charles Dickens is one of the best-known writers of the Victorian period and has had a significant influence on the development of the English novel.

There are a a lot of writing tools that will make your writing process faster and easier. We’ll highlight three of them below.

Paraphrasing tool

AI writing tools like ChatGPT and a paraphrasing tool can help you rewrite text so that your ideas are clearer, you don’t repeat yourself, and your writing has a consistent tone.

They can also help you write more clearly about sources without having to quote them directly. Be warned, though: it’s still crucial to give credit to all sources in the right way to prevent plagiarism .

Grammar checker

Writing tools that scan your text for punctuation, spelling, and grammar mistakes. When it detects a mistake the grammar checke r will give instant feedback and suggest corrections. Helping you write clearly and avoid common mistakes .

You can use a summarizer if you want to condense text into its most important and useful ideas. With a summarizer tool, you can make it easier to understand complicated sources. You can also use the tool to make your research question clearer and summarize your main argument.

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Use the checklist below to assess whether you have followed the rules of effective academic writing.

• Checklist: Academic writing

I avoid informal terms and contractions .

I avoid second-person pronouns (“you”).

I avoid emotive or exaggerated language.

I avoid redundant words and phrases.

I avoid unnecessary jargon and define terms where needed.

I present information as precisely and accurately as possible.

I use appropriate transitions to show the connections between my ideas.

My text is logically organized using paragraphs .

Each paragraph is focused on a single idea, expressed in a clear topic sentence .

Every part of the text relates to my central thesis or research question .

I support my claims with evidence.

I use the appropriate verb tenses in each section.

I consistently use either UK or US English .

I format numbers consistently.

I cite my sources using a consistent citation style .

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Module 5: Writing Process

The paragraph.

As Michael Harvey writes, paragraphs are, in essence, “a form of punctuation, and like other forms of punctuation they are meant to make written material easy to read.” [1]   Effective paragraphs are the fundamental units of academic writing; consequently, the thoughtful, multifaceted arguments that your professors expect depend on them. Without good paragraphs, you cannot clearly convey sequential points and their relationships to one another. Each paragraph provides space for a body of evidence that proves a particular aspect of your claim: the paragraph units need to seem focused within themselves, and linked between each other in a specific order that moves readers forward through your paper.

Many novice writers tend to make a sharp distinction between content and style, thinking that a paper can be strong in one and weak in the other, but focusing on paragraphs as organizational units shows how content and style converge in deliberative academic writing. Your professors will view even the most elegant prose as rambling and tedious if there isn’t a carefully constructed, cohesive argument unfolding logically across the topic sentences, backed up by the right evidence in the right place at the right time.

Topic Sentences

Topic sentences in academic writing do two closely related things. First, they establish the main point that the rest of the paragraph supports. Second, they situate each paragraph within the sequence of the argument, a task that requires both transitioning from the prior paragraph and restating what this particular paragraph adds to the central thesis. Don’t be afraid of repetition. If your topic sentences aren’t repeating a key term or concept from your introduction, readers will feel disoriented because you appear to be asking them to think about something new rather than developing an idea they knew to expect. You are not trying to catch an academic reader unawares! If you do, the reader will get jumpy (“What will the next paragraph ask me to think about?? Bananas? Aircraft carriers? Montenegro?”). Feel free to impress your readers with the elegance, soundness, and complexity of your thinking, but don’t subject them to topic sentence jump scares.

Consider these two examples: [2]

• Now we turn to the epidemiological evidence.
• The epidemiological evidence provides compelling support for the hypothesis emerging from these etiological studies.

Both versions convey a topic; it’s pretty easy to predict that the paragraph will be about epidemiological evidence, but only the second version establishes an argumentative point and puts it in context. This topic sentence doesn’t just announce the existence of the epidemiological evidence; it shows how epidemiology is telling the same story as etiology. That story, or hypothesis, must be the thesis of this paper (and giving that concrete sense of the stakes is probably the job of the following sentence, because not all ideas fit elegantly into one sentence, and there’s no rule that says a topic sentence must be literally only one sentence). Seeing these two ideas connected will come as a relief to your reader, who wants reassurance that all this thinking about epidemiology and etiology will serve a coherent claim. Put another way, while Version A doesn’t relate to anything in particular, Version B immediately suggests that the prior paragraph addresses the biological pathway (i.e., etiology) of a disease and that the new paragraph will bolster the emerging hypothesis with a different kind of evidence. As a reader, it’s easier now to keep track of how the paragraph about cells and chemicals and such relates to the previous paragraph about populations in different places. Presumably, these two paragraphs occur in this order, and not the reverse order, because readers will move more easily in this argument from etiology to epidemiology than the other way around: topic sentences move the reader through the arc of your thesis in the most logical way possible, which often means that the more familiar or more foundational material structures the earlier paragraphs. Topic sentences shouldn’t give the impression that your paragraphs follow an order no more compelling than “Another thing I want to talk about is…”

Key Takeaway

There are many possible reasons for ordering your paragraphs in certain ways; whatever reason you choose should be clear to your readers from the transitional logic you provide in the topic sentence(s).

A point to emphasize about key sentences is that academic readers expect them to be at the beginning of the paragraph, and not at the end. You don’t build up to a topic sentence; you use it to set the scene, and then build up evidence to support it.   This placement at the start helps readers comprehend your argument and easily follow the sequence of logic. 

Knowing this convention of academic writing can help you both write and read more effectively. When you’re reading a complicated academic piece for the first time, you might want to go through reading only the first sentence or two of each paragraph to get the overall outline of the argument. Then you can go back and read all of it with a clearer picture of how each of the details fit in.  And when you’re writing, you may also find it useful to write the first sentence of each paragraph (instead of a topic-based outline) to map out a thorough argument before getting immersed in sentence-level wordsmithing.

Cohesion and Coherence

With a key sentence established, the next task is to shape the body of your paragraph to be both cohesive and coherent. As Joseph Williams and Joseph Bizup  explain, cohesion is about the “sense of flow” (how each sentence fits with the next), while coherence is about the “sense of the whole” (how all the sentences in a paragraph focus on the same topic) . [3]    

For the most part, a text reads smoothly when it conveys a well organized argument or analysis. Focus first and most on your ideas, on crafting an ambitious analysis. The most useful guides advise you to first focus on getting your ideas on paper and then revising for organization and word choice later, refining the analysis as you go. Thus, consider the advice here  as if you already have some rough text written and are in the process of smoothing out your prose to clarify your argument for both your reader and yourself.

Cohesion refers to the flow from sentence to sentence. For example, compare these passages:

Version A: Granovetter begins by looking at balance theory. If an actor, A, is strongly tied to both B and C, it is extremely likely that B and C are, sooner or later, going to be tied to each other, according to balance theory (1973:1363).  Bridge ties between cliques are always weak ties, Granovetter argues (1973:1364). Weak ties may not necessarily be bridges, but Granovetter argues that bridges will be weak. If two actors share a strong tie, they will draw in their other strong relations and will eventually form a clique. Only weak ties that do not have the strength to draw together all the “friends of friends” can connect people in different cliques. [4]   Version B : Granovetter begins by looking at balance theory. In brief, balance theory tells us that if an actor, A, is strongly tied to both B and C, it is extremely likely that B and C are, sooner or later, going to be tied to each other (1973:1363). Granovetter argues that because of this, bridge ties between cliques are always weak ties (1973:1364). Weak ties may not necessarily be bridges, but Granovetter argues that bridges will be weak. This is because if two actors share a strong tie, they will draw in their other strong relations and will eventually form a clique. The only way, therefore, that people in different cliques can be connected is through weak ties that do not have the strength to draw together all the “friends of friends.” [5]

Version A has the exact same information as version B, but it is harder to read because it is less cohesive. The paragraph in version B feels more cohesive because each sentence begins with old information and bridges to new information. Note that “old” is a relative term: it might be something you’ve known for years, or it might only be as old as one sentence ago. You can convey a lot of new information to your readers if you keep presenting and linking what’s new to what’s familiar, even if none of the material was “old news” to you five minutes earlier.  

The point is this: if you or others perceive a passage you’ve written to be awkward or choppy, even though the topic is consistent, try rewriting it to ensure that each sentence begins with a familiar term or concept. If your points don’t naturally daisy-chain together like the examples given here, consider numbering them. For example, you may choose to write, “Proponents of the legislation point to four major benefits.” Then you could discuss four loosely related ideas without leaving your reader wondering how they relate.

While cohesion is about the sense of flow, coherence is about the sense of the whole . For example, here’s a passage that is cohesive (from sentence to sentence) but lacks coherence:

Your social networks and your location within them shape the kinds and amount of information that you have access to. Information is distinct from data, in that it makes some kind of generalization about a person, thing, or population. Defensible generalizations about society can be either probabilities (i.e., statistics) or patterns (often from qualitative analysis). Such probabilities and patterns can be temporal, spatial, or simultaneous.

Note, though, that good writers often write passages like that when they’re free-writing or using the drafting stage to cast a wide net for ideas. A writer weighing the power and limits of social network analysis may free-write something like that example and, from there, develop a more specific plan for summarizing key insights about social networks and then discussing them with reference to the core tenets of social science. As a draft, an incoherent paragraph often points to a productive line of reasoning—you just have to continue thinking it through in order to identify a clear argumentative purpose for each paragraph. With its purpose defined, each paragraph becomes a lot easier to write. Coherent paragraphs aren’t just about style; they are a sign of a focused, well developed analysis.

Concluding a Paragraph

Some guides advise you to end each paragraph with a specific concluding sentence—i n a sense, to treat each paragraph as a kind of mini-essay—but that’s not a widely held convention. Most well written academic pieces don’t adhere to that structure. The last sentence of the paragraph should certainly be in your own words (as in, not a quotation or paraphrase of somebody else’s ideas about your topic), but as long as the paragraph succeeds in carrying out the task that it has been assigned by its topic sentence, you don’t need to worry about whether that last sentence has an air of conclusiveness. For example, consider these paragraphs about the cold fusion controversy of the 1980s that appeared in a best-selling textbook : [6]

The experiment seemed straightforward, and there were plenty of scientists willing to try it. Many did. It was wonderful to have a simple laboratory experiment on fusion to try after the decades of embarrassing attempts to control hot fusion. This effort required multi-billion dollar machines whose every success seemed to be  capped with an unanticipated failure. ‘Cold fusion’ seemed to provide, as Martin Fleischmann said during the course of that famous Utah press conference, ‘another route’—the route of little science.

In that example, the first and last sentences in the paragraph are somewhat symmetrical: the authors introduce the idea of accessible science, contrast it with big science, and bring it back to the phrase “little science.” Here’s an example from the same chapter of the same book that does not have any particular symmetry : [7]

The struggle between proponents and critics in a scientific controversy is always a struggle for credibility. When scientists make claims which are literally ‘incredible,’ as in the cold fusion case, they face an uphill struggle. The problem Pons and Fleischmann had to overcome was that they had credibility as electrochemists but not as nuclear physicists. And it was nuclear physics where their work was likely to have its main impact.

The last sentence of the paragraph doesn’t mirror the first, but the paragraph is in great shape, coherently connecting its initial, general claim about credibility to the specific challenge to the credibility of Pons and Fleischmann. In general, don’t trouble yourself with having the last sentence in every paragraph serve as a mini-conclusion if it feels forced. Instead, worry about developing each point sufficiently and making your logical sequence clear. Let your topic sentences do most of the work of keeping your essay coherent and giving it forward momentum.

Rather than striving for mini-conclusions that might seem to pause your essay too heavily at the end of each paragraph if they are heavy-handed repetitions of the topic sentence, use the topic sentence of the next paragraph to bridge that gap of white space between paragraphs by regrouping where you are in your larger argument and clarifying how what you just finished saying relates to where your essay is heading in the coming paragraph. Topic sentences drive an essay forward; mini-conclusions sometimes stall it.

Conclusion: Paragraphs as Punctuation

To reiterate the initial point, it is useful to think of paragraphs as punctuation that organize your ideas in a readable way. Each paragraph should be an irreplaceable node within a coherent sequence of logic. In a successful, coherent college paper, the structure of each paragraph reflects its indispensable role within the overall piece. Make every bit count and have each part situated within the whole.

• Michael Harvey, The Nuts and Bolts of College Writing , Second Edition (Indianapolis, IN: Hackett Publishing, 2013), 70. ↵
• Etiology is the cause of a disease—what’s actually happening in cells and tissues—while epidemiology is the incidence of a disease in a population. ↵
• Joseph M. Williams and Joseph Bizup. Style: Lessons in Clarity and Grace 11th edition (New York: Longman, 2014), pp. 68, 71.
 ↵
• The quotation uses a version of an ASA-style in-text citation for Mark S. Granovetter, “The Strength of Weak Ties,”  American Journal of Sociology  78 (1973): 1360-80. ↵
• Guiffre. Communities and Networks , 98. ↵
• Harry Collins and Trevor Pinch, The Golem: What You Should Know About Science 2nd ed. (Cambridge: Canto, 1998), 58. ↵
• Ibid., 74. ↵
• Revision and Adaptation. Provided by : Lumen Learning. License : CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike
• Revision and Adaptation. Authored by : Gillian Paku. Provided by : SUNY Geneseo. License : CC BY: Attribution
• Cohesion and coherence. Authored by : Amy Guptill. Provided by : The College at Brockport, SUNY. Located at : http://textbooks.opensuny.org/writing-in-college-from-competence-to-excellence/ . Project : Writing in College: From Competence to Excellence. License : CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike
• Image of key. Authored by : Paree. Located at : https://flic.kr/p/acj85N . License : CC BY-NC: Attribution-NonCommercial
• Image of water droplets. Authored by : Ben Collins. Located at : https://flic.kr/p/p7aaH . License : CC BY: Attribution
• Image of chain. Authored by : Victor Nuno. Located at : https://flic.kr/p/meCEp . License : CC BY-NC: Attribution-NonCommercial

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• USC Libraries
• Research Guides

Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper

• Academic Writing Style
• Purpose of Guide
• Design Flaws to Avoid
• Independent and Dependent Variables
• Glossary of Research Terms
• Reading Research Effectively
• Narrowing a Topic Idea
• Broadening a Topic Idea
• Extending the Timeliness of a Topic Idea
• Applying Critical Thinking
• Choosing a Title
• Making an Outline
• Paragraph Development
• Research Process Video Series
• Executive Summary
• The C.A.R.S. Model
• Background Information
• The Research Problem/Question
• Theoretical Framework
• Citation Tracking
• Content Alert Services
• Evaluating Sources
• Primary Sources
• Secondary Sources
• Tiertiary Sources
• Scholarly vs. Popular Publications
• Qualitative Methods
• Quantitative Methods
• Insiderness
• Using Non-Textual Elements
• Limitations of the Study
• Common Grammar Mistakes
• Writing Concisely
• Avoiding Plagiarism
• Footnotes or Endnotes?
• Further Readings
• Generative AI and Writing
• USC Libraries Tutorials and Other Guides
• Bibliography

Academic writing refers to a style of expression that researchers use to define the intellectual boundaries of their disciplines and specific areas of expertise. Characteristics of academic writing include a formal tone, use of the third-person rather than first-person perspective (usually), a clear focus on the research problem under investigation, and precise word choice. Like specialist languages adopted in other professions, such as, law or medicine, academic writing is designed to convey agreed meaning about complex ideas or concepts within a community of scholarly experts and practitioners.

Academic Writing. Writing Center. Colorado Technical College; Hartley, James. Academic Writing and Publishing: A Practical Guide . New York: Routledge, 2008; Ezza, El-Sadig Y. and Touria Drid. T eaching Academic Writing as a Discipline-Specific Skill in Higher Education . Hershey, PA: IGI Global, 2020.

Importance of Good Academic Writing

The accepted form of academic writing in the social sciences can vary considerable depending on the methodological framework and the intended audience. However, most college-level research papers require careful attention to the following stylistic elements:

I.  The Big Picture Unlike creative or journalistic writing, the overall structure of academic writing is formal and logical. It must be cohesive and possess a logically organized flow of ideas; this means that the various parts are connected to form a unified whole. There should be narrative links between sentences and paragraphs so that the reader is able to follow your argument. The introduction should include a description of how the rest of the paper is organized and all sources are properly cited throughout the paper.

II.  Tone The overall tone refers to the attitude conveyed in a piece of writing. Throughout your paper, it is important that you present the arguments of others fairly and with an appropriate narrative tone. When presenting a position or argument that you disagree with, describe this argument accurately and without loaded or biased language. In academic writing, the author is expected to investigate the research problem from an authoritative point of view. You should, therefore, state the strengths of your arguments confidently, using language that is neutral, not confrontational or dismissive.

III.  Diction Diction refers to the choice of words you use. Awareness of the words you use is important because words that have almost the same denotation [dictionary definition] can have very different connotations [implied meanings]. This is particularly true in academic writing because words and terminology can evolve a nuanced meaning that describes a particular idea, concept, or phenomenon derived from the epistemological culture of that discipline [e.g., the concept of rational choice in political science]. Therefore, use concrete words [not general] that convey a specific meaning. If this cannot be done without confusing the reader, then you need to explain what you mean within the context of how that word or phrase is used within a discipline.

IV.  Language The investigation of research problems in the social sciences is often complex and multi- dimensional . Therefore, it is important that you use unambiguous language. Well-structured paragraphs and clear topic sentences enable a reader to follow your line of thinking without difficulty. Your language should be concise, formal, and express precisely what you want it to mean. Do not use vague expressions that are not specific or precise enough for the reader to derive exact meaning ["they," "we," "people," "the organization," etc.], abbreviations like 'i.e.'  ["in other words"], 'e.g.' ["for example"], or 'a.k.a.' ["also known as"], and the use of unspecific determinate words ["super," "very," "incredible," "huge," etc.].

V.  Punctuation Scholars rely on precise words and language to establish the narrative tone of their work and, therefore, punctuation marks are used very deliberately. For example, exclamation points are rarely used to express a heightened tone because it can come across as unsophisticated or over-excited. Dashes should be limited to the insertion of an explanatory comment in a sentence, while hyphens should be limited to connecting prefixes to words [e.g., multi-disciplinary] or when forming compound phrases [e.g., commander-in-chief]. Finally, understand that semi-colons represent a pause that is longer than a comma, but shorter than a period in a sentence. In general, there are four grammatical uses of semi-colons: when a second clause expands or explains the first clause; to describe a sequence of actions or different aspects of the same topic; placed before clauses which begin with "nevertheless", "therefore", "even so," and "for instance”; and, to mark off a series of phrases or clauses which contain commas. If you are not confident about when to use semi-colons [and most of the time, they are not required for proper punctuation], rewrite using shorter sentences or revise the paragraph.

VI.  Academic Conventions Among the most important rules and principles of academic engagement of a writing is citing sources in the body of your paper and providing a list of references as either footnotes or endnotes. The academic convention of citing sources facilitates processes of intellectual discovery, critical thinking, and applying a deliberate method of navigating through the scholarly landscape by tracking how cited works are propagated by scholars over time . Aside from citing sources, other academic conventions to follow include the appropriate use of headings and subheadings, properly spelling out acronyms when first used in the text, avoiding slang or colloquial language, avoiding emotive language or unsupported declarative statements, avoiding contractions [e.g., isn't], and using first person and second person pronouns only when necessary.

VII.  Evidence-Based Reasoning Assignments often ask you to express your own point of view about the research problem. However, what is valued in academic writing is that statements are based on evidence-based reasoning. This refers to possessing a clear understanding of the pertinent body of knowledge and academic debates that exist within, and often external to, your discipline concerning the topic. You need to support your arguments with evidence from scholarly [i.e., academic or peer-reviewed] sources. It should be an objective stance presented as a logical argument; the quality of the evidence you cite will determine the strength of your argument. The objective is to convince the reader of the validity of your thoughts through a well-documented, coherent, and logically structured piece of writing. This is particularly important when proposing solutions to problems or delineating recommended courses of action.

VIII.  Thesis-Driven Academic writing is “thesis-driven,” meaning that the starting point is a particular perspective, idea, or position applied to the chosen topic of investigation, such as, establishing, proving, or disproving solutions to the questions applied to investigating the research problem. Note that a problem statement without the research questions does not qualify as academic writing because simply identifying the research problem does not establish for the reader how you will contribute to solving the problem, what aspects you believe are most critical, or suggest a method for gathering information or data to better understand the problem.

IX.  Complexity and Higher-Order Thinking Academic writing addresses complex issues that require higher-order thinking skills applied to understanding the research problem [e.g., critical, reflective, logical, and creative thinking as opposed to, for example, descriptive or prescriptive thinking]. Higher-order thinking skills include cognitive processes that are used to comprehend, solve problems, and express concepts or that describe abstract ideas that cannot be easily acted out, pointed to, or shown with images. Think of your writing this way: One of the most important attributes of a good teacher is the ability to explain complexity in a way that is understandable and relatable to the topic being presented during class. This is also one of the main functions of academic writing--examining and explaining the significance of complex ideas as clearly as possible.  As a writer, you must adopt the role of a good teacher by summarizing complex information into a well-organized synthesis of ideas, concepts, and recommendations that contribute to a better understanding of the research problem.

Academic Writing. Writing Center. Colorado Technical College; Hartley, James. Academic Writing and Publishing: A Practical Guide . New York: Routledge, 2008; Murray, Rowena  and Sarah Moore. The Handbook of Academic Writing: A Fresh Approach . New York: Open University Press, 2006; Johnson, Roy. Improve Your Writing Skills . Manchester, UK: Clifton Press, 1995; Nygaard, Lynn P. Writing for Scholars: A Practical Guide to Making Sense and Being Heard . Second edition. Los Angeles, CA: Sage Publications, 2015; Silvia, Paul J. How to Write a Lot: A Practical Guide to Productive Academic Writing . Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 2007; Style, Diction, Tone, and Voice. Writing Center, Wheaton College; Sword, Helen. Stylish Academic Writing . Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2012.

Strategies for...

Understanding Academic Writing and Its Jargon

The very definition of research jargon is language specific to a particular community of practitioner-researchers . Therefore, in modern university life, jargon represents the specific language and meaning assigned to words and phrases specific to a discipline or area of study. For example, the idea of being rational may hold the same general meaning in both political science and psychology, but its application to understanding and explaining phenomena within the research domain of a each discipline may have subtle differences based upon how scholars in that discipline apply the concept to the theories and practice of their work.

Given this, it is important that specialist terminology [i.e., jargon] must be used accurately and applied under the appropriate conditions . Subject-specific dictionaries are the best places to confirm the meaning of terms within the context of a specific discipline. These can be found by either searching in the USC Libraries catalog by entering the disciplinary and the word dictionary [e.g., sociology and dictionary] or using a database such as Credo Reference [a curated collection of subject encyclopedias, dictionaries, handbooks, guides from highly regarded publishers] . It is appropriate for you to use specialist language within your field of study, but you should avoid using such language when writing for non-academic or general audiences.

Problems with Opaque Writing

A common criticism of scholars is that they can utilize needlessly complex syntax or overly expansive vocabulary that is impenetrable or not well-defined. When writing, avoid problems associated with opaque writing by keeping in mind the following:

1.   Excessive use of specialized terminology . Yes, it is appropriate for you to use specialist language and a formal style of expression in academic writing, but it does not mean using "big words" just for the sake of doing so. Overuse of complex or obscure words or writing complicated sentence constructions gives readers the impression that your paper is more about style than substance; it leads the reader to question if you really know what you are talking about. Focus on creating clear, concise, and elegant prose that minimizes reliance on specialized terminology.

2.   Inappropriate use of specialized terminology . Because you are dealing with concepts, research, and data within your discipline, you need to use the technical language appropriate to that area of study. However, nothing will undermine the validity of your study quicker than the inappropriate application of a term or concept. Avoid using terms whose meaning you are unsure of--do not just guess or assume! Consult the meaning of terms in specialized, discipline-specific dictionaries by searching the USC Libraries catalog or the Credo Reference database [see above].

Additional Problems to Avoid

In addition to understanding the use of specialized language, there are other aspects of academic writing in the social sciences that you should be aware of. These problems include:

• Personal nouns . Excessive use of personal nouns [e.g., I, me, you, us] may lead the reader to believe the study was overly subjective. These words can be interpreted as being used only to avoid presenting empirical evidence about the research problem. Limit the use of personal nouns to descriptions of things you actually did [e.g., "I interviewed ten teachers about classroom management techniques..."]. Note that personal nouns are generally found in the discussion section of a paper because this is where you as the author/researcher interpret and describe your work.
• Directives . Avoid directives that demand the reader to "do this" or "do that." Directives should be framed as evidence-based recommendations or goals leading to specific outcomes. Note that an exception to this can be found in various forms of action research that involve evidence-based advocacy for social justice or transformative change. Within this area of the social sciences, authors may offer directives for action in a declarative tone of urgency.
• Informal, conversational tone using slang and idioms . Academic writing relies on excellent grammar and precise word structure. Your narrative should not include regional dialects or slang terms because they can be open to interpretation. Your writing should be direct and concise using standard English.
• Wordiness. Focus on being concise, straightforward, and developing a narrative that does not have confusing language . By doing so, you  help eliminate the possibility of the reader misinterpreting the design and purpose of your study.
• Vague expressions (e.g., "they," "we," "people," "the company," "that area," etc.). Being concise in your writing also includes avoiding vague references to persons, places, or things. While proofreading your paper, be sure to look for and edit any vague or imprecise statements that lack context or specificity.
• Numbered lists and bulleted items . The use of bulleted items or lists should be used only if the narrative dictates a need for clarity. For example, it is fine to state, "The four main problems with hedge funds are:" and then list them as 1, 2, 3, 4. However, in academic writing, this must then be followed by detailed explanation and analysis of each item. Given this, the question you should ask yourself while proofreading is: why begin with a list in the first place rather than just starting with systematic analysis of each item arranged in separate paragraphs? Also, be careful using numbers because they can imply a ranked order of priority or importance. If none exists, use bullets and avoid checkmarks or other symbols.
• Descriptive writing . Describing a research problem is an important means of contextualizing a study. In fact, some description or background information may be needed because you can not assume the reader knows the key aspects of the topic. However, the content of your paper should focus on methodology, the analysis and interpretation of findings, and their implications as they apply to the research problem rather than background information and descriptions of tangential issues.
• Personal experience. Drawing upon personal experience [e.g., traveling abroad; caring for someone with Alzheimer's disease] can be an effective way of introducing the research problem or engaging your readers in understanding its significance. Use personal experience only as an example, though, because academic writing relies on evidence-based research. To do otherwise is simply story-telling.

NOTE:   Rules concerning excellent grammar and precise word structure do not apply when quoting someone.  A quote should be inserted in the text of your paper exactly as it was stated. If the quote is especially vague or hard to understand, consider paraphrasing it or using a different quote to convey the same meaning. Consider inserting the term "sic" in brackets after the quoted text to indicate that the quotation has been transcribed exactly as found in the original source, but the source had grammar, spelling, or other errors. The adverb sic informs the reader that the errors are not yours.

Academic Writing. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Academic Writing Style. First-Year Seminar Handbook. Mercer University; Bem, Daryl J. Writing the Empirical Journal Article. Cornell University; College Writing. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Murray, Rowena  and Sarah Moore. The Handbook of Academic Writing: A Fresh Approach . New York: Open University Press, 2006; Johnson, Eileen S. “Action Research.” In Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Education . Edited by George W. Noblit and Joseph R. Neikirk. (New York: Oxford University Press, 2020); Oppenheimer, Daniel M. "Consequences of Erudite Vernacular Utilized Irrespective of Necessity: Problems with Using Long Words Needlessly." Applied Cognitive Psychology 20 (2006): 139-156; Ezza, El-Sadig Y. and Touria Drid. T eaching Academic Writing as a Discipline-Specific Skill in Higher Education . Hershey, PA: IGI Global, 2020; Pernawan, Ari. Common Flaws in Students' Research Proposals. English Education Department. Yogyakarta State University; Style. College Writing. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Invention: Five Qualities of Good Writing. The Reading/Writing Center. Hunter College; Sword, Helen. Stylish Academic Writing . Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2012; What Is an Academic Paper? Institute for Writing Rhetoric. Dartmouth College.

Structure and Writing Style

I. Improving Academic Writing

To improve your academic writing skills, you should focus your efforts on three key areas: 1.   Clear Writing . The act of thinking about precedes the process of writing about. Good writers spend sufficient time distilling information and reviewing major points from the literature they have reviewed before creating their work. Writing detailed outlines can help you clearly organize your thoughts. Effective academic writing begins with solid planning, so manage your time carefully. 2.  Excellent Grammar . Needless to say, English grammar can be difficult and complex; even the best scholars take many years before they have a command of the major points of good grammar. Take the time to learn the major and minor points of good grammar. Spend time practicing writing and seek detailed feedback from professors. Take advantage of the Writing Center on campus if you need help. Proper punctuation and good proofreading skills can significantly improve academic writing [see sub-tab for proofreading you paper ].

Refer to these three basic resources to help your grammar and writing skills:

• A good writing reference book, such as, Strunk and White’s book, The Elements of Style or the St. Martin's Handbook ;
• A college-level dictionary, such as, Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary ;
• The latest edition of Roget's Thesaurus in Dictionary Form .

3.  Consistent Stylistic Approach . Whether your professor expresses a preference to use MLA, APA or the Chicago Manual of Style or not, choose one style manual and stick to it. Each of these style manuals provide rules on how to write out numbers, references, citations, footnotes, and lists. Consistent adherence to a style of writing helps with the narrative flow of your paper and improves its readability. Note that some disciplines require a particular style [e.g., education uses APA] so as you write more papers within your major, your familiarity with it will improve.

II. Evaluating Quality of Writing

A useful approach for evaluating the quality of your academic writing is to consider the following issues from the perspective of the reader. While proofreading your final draft, critically assess the following elements in your writing.

• It is shaped around one clear research problem, and it explains what that problem is from the outset.
• Your paper tells the reader why the problem is important and why people should know about it.
• You have accurately and thoroughly informed the reader what has already been published about this problem or others related to it and noted important gaps in the research.
• You have provided evidence to support your argument that the reader finds convincing.
• The paper includes a description of how and why particular evidence was collected and analyzed, and why specific theoretical arguments or concepts were used.
• The paper is made up of paragraphs, each containing only one controlling idea.
• You indicate how each section of the paper addresses the research problem.
• You have considered counter-arguments or counter-examples where they are relevant.
• Arguments, evidence, and their significance have been presented in the conclusion.
• Limitations of your research have been explained as evidence of the potential need for further study.
• The narrative flows in a clear, accurate, and well-organized way.

Boscoloa, Pietro, Barbara Arféb, and Mara Quarisaa. “Improving the Quality of Students' Academic Writing: An Intervention Study.” Studies in Higher Education 32 (August 2007): 419-438; Academic Writing. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Academic Writing Style. First-Year Seminar Handbook. Mercer University; Bem, Daryl J. Writing the Empirical Journal Article. Cornell University; Candlin, Christopher. Academic Writing Step-By-Step: A Research-based Approach . Bristol, CT: Equinox Publishing Ltd., 2016; College Writing. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Style . College Writing. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Invention: Five Qualities of Good Writing. The Reading/Writing Center. Hunter College; Sword, Helen. Stylish Academic Writing . Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2012; What Is an Academic Paper? Institute for Writing Rhetoric. Dartmouth College.

Writing Tip

Considering the Passive Voice in Academic Writing

In the English language, we are able to construct sentences in the following way: 1.  "The policies of Congress caused the economic crisis." 2.  "The economic crisis was caused by the policies of Congress."

The decision about which sentence to use is governed by whether you want to focus on “Congress” and what they did, or on “the economic crisis” and what caused it. This choice in focus is achieved with the use of either the active or the passive voice. When you want your readers to focus on the "doer" of an action, you can make the "doer"' the subject of the sentence and use the active form of the verb. When you want readers to focus on the person, place, or thing affected by the action, or the action itself, you can make the effect or the action the subject of the sentence by using the passive form of the verb.

Often in academic writing, scholars don't want to focus on who is doing an action, but on who is receiving or experiencing the consequences of that action. The passive voice is useful in academic writing because it allows writers to highlight the most important participants or events within sentences by placing them at the beginning of the sentence.

Use the passive voice when:

• You want to focus on the person, place, or thing affected by the action, or the action itself;
• It is not important who or what did the action;
• You want to be impersonal or more formal.

Form the passive voice by:

• Turning the object of the active sentence into the subject of the passive sentence.
• Changing the verb to a passive form by adding the appropriate form of the verb "to be" and the past participle of the main verb.

NOTE: Consult with your professor about using the passive voice before submitting your research paper. Some strongly discourage its use!

Active and Passive Voice. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Diefenbach, Paul. Future of Digital Media Syllabus. Drexel University; Passive Voice. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina.  

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