importance of facts in essay

Introduction

Background on the Course

CO300 as a University Core Course

Short Description of the Course

Course Objectives

General Overview

Alternative Approaches and Assignments

(Possible) Differences between COCC150 and CO300

What CO300 Students Are Like

And You Thought...

Beginning with Critical Reading

Opportunities for Innovation

Portfolio Grading as an Option

Teaching in the computer classroom

Finally. . .

Classroom materials

Audience awareness and rhetorical contexts

Critical thinking and reading

Focusing and narrowing topics

Mid-course, group, and supplemental evaluations

More detailed explanation of Rogerian argument and Toulmin analysis

Policy statements and syllabi

Portfolio explanations, checklists, and postscripts

Presenting evidence and organizing arguments/counter-arguments

Research and documentation

Writing assignment sheets

Assignments for portfolio 1

Assignments for portfolio 2

Assignments for portfolio 3

Workshopping and workshop sheets

On workshopping generally

Workshop sheets for portfolio 1

Workshop sheets for portfolio 2

Workshop sheets for portfolio 3

Workshop sheets for general purposes

Sample materials grouped by instructor

Distinguishing Fact, Opinion, Belief, and Prejudice

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An author’s purpose can influence the kind of information they choose to include.

Thinking about the reason an author produced a source can be helpful to you because that reason was what dictated the kind of information they chose to include. Depending on that purpose, the author may have chosen to include factual, analytical, and objective information. Or, instead, it may have suited their purpose to include information that was subjective and therefore less factual and analytical. The author’s reason for producing the source also determined whether they included more than one perspective or just their own.

Authors typically want to do at least one of the following:

• Inform and educate
• Sell services or products or

Combination of Purposes

Sometimes authors have a combination of purposes, as when a marketer decides they can sell more smartphones with an informative sales video that also entertains us. The same is true when a singer writes and performs a song that entertains us but that they intend to make available for sale. Other examples of authors having multiple purposes occur in most scholarly writing.

In those cases, authors certainly want to inform and educate their audiences. But they also want to persuade their audiences that what they are reporting and/or postulating is a true description of a situation, event, or phenomenon or a valid argument that their audience must take a particular action. In this blend of scholarly author’s purposes, the intent to educate and inform is considered to trump the intent to persuade.

Why Intent Matters

Authors’ intent usually matters in how useful their information can be to your research project, depending on which information need you are trying to meet. For instance, when you’re looking for resources that will help you actually decide how to answer your research question or evidence for your answer that you will share with your audience, you will want the author’s main purpose to have been to inform or educate their audience. That’s because, with that intent, they are likely to have used:

• Facts where possible.
• Multiple perspectives instead of just their own.
• Little subjective information.
• Seemingly unbiased, objective language that cites where they got the information.

The reason you want that kind of resource when trying to answer your research question or explaining that answer is that all of those characteristics will lend credibility to the argument you are making with your project. Both you and your audience will simply find it easier to believe—will have more confidence in the argument being you are making—based on your selected resources.

Resources whose authors intend only to persuade others won’t meet your information need for an answer to your research question or evidence with which to convince your audience. That’s because they don’t always confine themselves to facts. Instead, they tell us their opinions without backing them up with evidence. If you used those sources, your readers will notice and not believe your argument.

Fact vs. Opinion vs. Objective vs. Subjective

Need to brush up on the differences between fact, objective information, subjective information, and opinion?

Fact – Facts are useful to inform or make an argument.

• The United States was established in 1776.
• The pH levels in acids are lower than pH levels in alkalines.
• Beethoven had a reputation as a virtuoso pianist.

Opinion – Opinions are useful to persuade, but careful readers and listeners will notice and demand evidence to back them up.

• That was a good movie.
• Strawberries taste better than blueberries.
• George Clooney is the sexiest actor alive.
• The death penalty is wrong.
• Beethoven’s reputation as a virtuoso pianist is overrated.

Objective – Objective information reflects a research finding or multiple perspectives that are not biased.

• “Several studies show that an active lifestyle reduces the risk of heart disease and diabetes.”
• “Studies from the Brown University Medical School show that twenty-somethings eat 25 percent more fast-food meals at this age than they did as teenagers.”

Subjective – Subjective information presents one person or organization’s perspective or interpretation. Subjective information can be meant to distort, or it can reflect educated and informed thinking. All opinions are subjective, but some are backed up with facts more than others.

• “The simple truth is this: As human beings, we were meant to move.”
• “In their thirties, women should stock up on calcium to ensure strong, dense bones and to ward off osteoporosis later in life.”*

*In this quote, it’s mostly the “should” that makes it subjective. The objective version of the last quote would read: “Studies have shown that women who begin taking calcium in their 30s show stronger bone density and fewer repercussions of osteoporosis than women who did not take calcium at all.” But perhaps there are other data showing complications from taking calcium. That’s why drawing the conclusion that requires a “should” makes the statement subjective.

Critical Thinking in Academic Research Copyright © 2022 by Cindy Gruwell and Robin Ewing is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Teaching Fact and Opinion

DISTINGUISHING BETWEEN FACT AND OPINION

For higher-level reading comprehension, students must accurately distinguish between fact and opinion. To do this successfully, students must begin with solid definitions of the two concepts. Once this has been achieved, students can practice applying these definitions through activities engaging with a wide range of reading material. Let’s take a look at defining these two all-important concepts before proceeding into strategies and ideas for teaching fact and opinion in the classroom.

WHAT IS A FACT?

A fact refers to something true and can be verified as such . That is, a fact is something that can be proven to be true. 

WHAT IS AN OPINION?

An opinion refers to a personal belief. It relates to how someone feels about something. Others may agree or disagree with an opinion but cannot prove or disprove it. This is what defines it as opinion.

Common Fact Vs. Opinion Statements

• The Earth is round.
• Water freezes at 0 degrees Celsius.
• The Great Wall of China is the longest wall in the world.
• The sun rises in the east and sets in the west.
• The human body has 206 bones.
• The fastest land animal is the cheetah.
• The capital of France is Paris.
• The Nile River is the longest river in the world.
• The Statue of Liberty is located in New York Harbor.
• The United States of America has 50 states.
• Pizza is the best food in the world.
• Horror movies are too scary to watch.
• Taylor Swift is the greatest musician of all time.
• Dogs are better pets than cats.
• Chocolate ice cream is better than vanilla ice cream.
• Politics is too complicated to understand.
• Exercise is essential for a healthy lifestyle.
• The internet is the greatest invention in human history.
• Living in a big city is better than living in a small town.
• The color blue is the most calming color.

IDENTIFYING FACT FROM OPINION IS AN ESSENTIAL SKILL FOR STUDENTS

The ability to distinguish between fact and opinion helps students develop critical and analytical skills in reading and listening. Fact and opinion are often woven together in texts and speeches. It is, therefore, imperative that students can unravel the threads of what is true from what is mere belief if they are to navigate the deluge of media successfully they will encounter in their lifetimes.

Whether on the news, in advertising, or in a history book, learning to distinguish between what is fact and what is opinion is crucial to becoming an autonomous consumer with the critical thinking skills to avoid being manipulated easily.

THE ULTIMATE FACT AND OPINION TEACHING UNIT

This  HUGE 120 PAGE  resource combines four different fact and opinion activities you can undertake as a  WHOLE GROUP  or as  INDEPENDENT READING GROUP TASKS  in either  DIGITAL  or  PRINTABLE TASKS.

The Language of Facts AND OpinionS: Signal Words and Phrases

Writers will liven up their facts with a sprinkling of opinions. Unfortunately, it can sometimes be challenging to extract the verifiable truths from the author’s preferences and biases. Luckily, the language used often throws up helpful clues in the forms of words and phrases that assist us in identifying statements as fact-based or opinion-based.

Let’s now take a look at some examples of those signal words and phrases being used in the sentence fragments that often precede a statement of fact or opinion:

FACT SIGNAL WORDS

• The annual report confirms …
• Scientists have recently discovered …
• According to the results of the tests…
• The investigation demonstrated …

OPINION SIGNAL WORDS

• He claimed that…
• It is the officer’s view that…
• The report argues that…
• Many scientists suspect that…

As we can see from the signal word examples, the language used to introduce fact, and opinion statements can help indicate whether it is being framed as a fact or an opinion.

Students must understand that things are not always as they appear to be. At times, writers, whether consciously or not, will frame opinion as fact and vice versa. This is why it is vital that students develop a clear understanding of what constitutes fact and opinion and are afforded ample opportunities to practice distinguishing between the two.

WHAT IS CONTEXT?

Context is the circumstances surrounding an event, statement, or idea and in terms of which it can be fully understood. Facts and opinions must be placed in context to draw conclusions, and they can significantly impact the importance we place upon statements of fact and opinion.

For example, a young boy who tells his mother, “I ate a truckload of sweets at the party last night” needs to be placed in the context of his age and audience.

We can confidently infer he never actually ate a real truckload of sweets, but we can reasonably appreciate he ate a lot of them and wanted to emphasise that point. His mother might ask a clarifying question to turn that opinion into a hard fact.

Context provides the background information or circumstances that help us understand the meaning of facts and opinions.

For instance, if we say the factual statement, “it’s raining outside” , the context may differ depending on the situation. If we’re at home, it might mean we must stay inside or find something to do indoors. If we’re at a sports game, it might affect the playing conditions or attendance.

Similarly, the context of an opinion can vary based on the situation. For example, if someone says, “I don’t like spicy food” , the context might include their previous experiences with spicy food or the cultural norms of the cuisine they’re discussing. Understanding the context helps us understand the meaning and implications of what someone is saying.

THE CHALLENGES OF TEACHING FACT AND OPINION IN THE “POST-TRUTH” ERA

Teaching students to differentiate between fact and opinion is a complex task that requires educators to navigate a number of challenges that have only accelerated in the “Post-Truth” era, in which some members of society cannot accept being wrong on a particular issue, even with an ocean of evidence stacked against them.

One of the key challenges is that students often come to the classroom with preconceived notions and biases that can make it difficult for them to accept certain facts.

This is not a new phenomenon. Throughout history, individuals and groups have clung to their beliefs despite overwhelming evidence to the contrary. For example, in the 16th and 17th centuries, many people still believed that the Earth was the center of the universe, despite the mounting evidence to the contrary.

Today, we face a similar challenge when teaching students about scientific issues such as climate change. Some students may come from families or communities that deny the existence of climate change, despite the overwhelming scientific evidence that supports it. In such cases, educators must find ways to engage with students respectfully and constructively, while also presenting the scientific evidence clearly and compellingly.

Another challenge educators face when teaching fact and opinion is that students may struggle to distinguish between the two when presented together. This is particularly true in news media, where news articles often include a mixture of factual information and opinions from various sources.

In such cases, educators must teach students to critically evaluate the sources of information they encounter and distinguish between factual information and opinions. This requires a deep understanding of the media landscape, as well as an ability to evaluate the information that is presented critically.

Teaching Resources

Use these resources and tools to improve your student’s media literacy skills through proven teaching strategies.

Fact Vs. Opinion TEACHING activities

Fact and Opinion Activities: Honing the Skills

To become a skilled, critical reader, a student must develop the ability to evaluate a text for facts and opinions quickly. To achieve this, they must practice distinguishing between fact and opinion to a point where it becomes a subconscious mechanism. The activities below will afford your students these necessary opportunities. They can also easily be adapted to various ages and abilities by carefully selecting the reading material.

Student Activity 1. Top 10 Facts and Opinions  

Not only does this simple activity help students hone their fact and opinion-detecting abilities but serves as a great warm-up research activity when beginning a new topic in class. 

When starting a new topic, whether on a historical period, a literary figure, or a species of animal, set students to list ten facts and opinions from their background reading and research on their new topic. Students must then form and record ten opinions based on reflection on this initial reading and research.

It may also be a valuable exercise for students to review their opinions at the end of the topic. Have they changed their opinion in any areas of the topic? Why did they change or maintain their opinion? This can work as a great review activity to wrap things up.

Student Activity 2. Evaluate an Editorial

Newspaper editorials can be a superb resource for students to practice recognizing facts and opinions. They are filled with the editor’s opinions on the day’s issues, intermingled with facts selected to support that view.

First, give students copies of a newspaper editorial. Then, working in pairs, have students go through the editorial to identify the facts by underlining them and the opinions by highlighting them. Remind them to look for the signal words we covered earlier to help identify facts and opinions.

When finished, students can compare their answers and discuss the reasons for their decisions. This will help identify any areas of confusion within the class, providing valuable data to inform your future planning on this topic.

Student Activity 3. Fact vs Opinion Survey

This activity can initially be undertaken using statements compiled on a worksheet. Later, students can work through text passages or a textbook itself directly. Students work through a series of statements marking either F or O beside each to identify that statement as a F act or an O pinion.

This activity is a practical study preparation exercise as it helps students to filter factual content from opinion. It also makes it easier for students to work out the underlying purpose of a text , whether it is designed to inform, persuade, or entertain. Students will soon begin to recognize that passages of text that contain more facts than opinions are most likely intended to inform. In contrast, a more opinion-based text will most likely be designed to persuade or entertain.

Student Activity 4. The Great Fact or Opinion Sort

Organize students into reasonable-sized groups of four or five students. Provide each group with a jar containing a set of cards , each with a fact-based or an opinion-based statement printed on it. Students take turns picking a card from the jar and reading it to the group. The group discusses each statement before deciding if it is a fact or an opinion.

Students can then record the statements accordingly on the Fact and Opinion graphic organizer described above or sort them into two piles.

This activity effectively supports struggling students as they learn from those who have already developed a firmer grasp of the two concepts.

Extension Exercise: Identifying Bias

One reason it is so vital for our students to learn to differentiate between fact and opinion is that this ability is a stepping stone to detecting bias in a text. Students begin to evaluate a text for bias by identifying how much of the text is fact-based and how much is based on opinion.

Once this is done, students must then analyse whether the opinions expressed in the text are biased by considering whether the writer has:

• Provided incomplete information
• Intentionally ignored or left out information to persuade the reader
• Allowed their own personal experiences to cloud any sense of objectivity.

A Complete Teaching Unit on Fake News

Digital and social media have completely redefined the media landscape, making it difficult for students to identify FACTS AND OPINIONS covering:

Teach them to FIGHT FAKE NEWS with this COMPLETE 42 PAGE UNIT. No preparation is required,

FACT vs OPINION GRAPHIC ORGANIZERS

Graphic organizers are a great tool to help students sort the facts and opinions in a text. Offering, as they do, a very visual means of organizing information, graphic organizers help students drill their ability to identify differences between fact and opinion statements until they become automatic.

The Fact and Opinion Chart

This simple chart consists of two columns helpfully labelled fact and opinion beneath a topic heading. Students work through a text, sorting statements as they come across them into the appropriate column on the graphic organizer. At the end of this task, they will be left with a clear segregation of the statements of the text according to whether they are objective facts or subjective opinions.

READ OUR GREAT ARTICLE ON LITERACY GRAPHIC ORGANIZERS HERE

IN CONCLUSION

Not only is the ability to identify bias in the writing of others essential, but this knowledge will also be of great benefit to students when it comes to forming and expressing their own opinions.

Taking the time to prepare and deliver discrete lessons on recognising facts and opinions in reading is essential. No matter how confident students are in distinguishing between the two, they are still likely to benefit from further practice. Even the most reflective of us can sometimes remain ignorant of our biases!

Becoming the critical readers that our students aspire to become begins with forming clear definitions of the terms in the student’s minds. These definitions must be supported by examples and illustrations to achieve this. Student understanding must be further underpinned by classroom and home practice. The activities above serve as a good starting point, but they are not sufficient on their own.

It will be necessary to support students further to gain a deeper understanding of fact and opinion (and related concepts such as bias) by frequently referencing these concepts when engaged with students in lessons with other explicit objectives seemingly unrelated to fact and opinion. Reinforcement should be persistent to ensure students develop firm skills in this area.

With ongoing technological advances, assessing the reliability and truthfulness of the media, we consume daily has never been more challenging – or essential.

OTHER GREAT ARTICLES RELATED TO FACT AND OPINION

6 Ways To Identify Fake News: A Complete Guide for Educators

How to Write a Descriptive Text

Teaching Proofreading and Editing Skills

Information Literacy and Media Literacy for Students and Teachers

Teaching Compare and Contrast

What Is An Inference? And How To Teach It.

5 Ways to Teach Critical Thinking in Media Literacy to Fight Fake News

Explore our Premium Unit on FACT & OPINION

Facts are not always more important than opinions: here’s why

Lecturer in Critical Thinking, The University of Queensland

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Peter Ellerton does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

University of Queensland provides funding as a member of The Conversation AU.

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• Bahasa Indonesia

Which is more important, a fact or an opinion on any given subject? It might be tempting to say the fact. But not so fast…

Lately, we find ourselves lamenting the post-truth world, in which facts seem no more important than opinions, and sometimes less so.

We also tend to see this as a recent devaluation of knowledge. But this is a phenomenon with a long history.

As the science fiction writer Isaac Asimov wrote in 1980:

Anti-intellectualism has been a constant thread winding its way through our political and cultural life, nurtured by the false notion that democracy means that “my ignorance is just as good as your knowledge”.

The view that opinions can be more important than facts need not mean the same thing as the devaluing of knowledge. It’s always been the case that in certain situations opinions have been more important than facts, and this is a good thing. Let me explain.

Not all facts are true

To call something a fact is, presumably, to make a claim that it is true. This isn’t a problem for many things, although defending such a claim can be harder than you think.

What we think are facts – that is, those things we think are true – can end up being wrong despite our most honest commitment to genuine inquiry.

For example, is red wine good or bad for you? And was there a dinosaur called the brontosaurus or not ? The Harvard researcher Samuel Arbesman points out these examples and others of how facts change in his book The Half Life of Facts .

It’s not only that facts can change that is a problem. While we might be happy to consider it a fact that Earth is spherical, we would be wrong to do so because it’s actually a bit pear-shaped. Thinking it a sphere, however, is very different from thinking it to be flat .

Asimov expressed this beautifully in his essay The Relativity of Wrong . For Asimov, the person who thinks Earth is a sphere is wrong, and so is the person who thinks the Earth is flat. But the person who thinks that they are equally wrong is more wrong than both.

Geometrical hair-splitting aside, calling something a fact is therefore not a proclamation of infallibility. It is usually used to represent the best knowledge we have at any given time.

It’s also not the knockout blow we might hope for in an argument. Saying something is a fact by itself does nothing to convince someone who doesn’t agree with you. Unaccompanied by any warrant for belief, it is not a technique of persuasion. Proof by volume and repetition – repeatedly yelling “but it’s a fact!” – simply doesn’t work. Or at least it shouldn’t.

Matters of fact and opinion

Then again, calling something an opinion need not mean an escape to the fairyland of wishful thinking. This too is not a knockout attack in an argument. If we think of an opinion as one person’s view on a subject, then many opinions can be solid.

For example, it’s my opinion that science gives us a powerful narrative to help understand our place in the Universe, at least as much as any religious perspective does. It’s not an empirical fact that science does so, but it works for me.

But we can be much clearer in our meaning if we separate things into matters of fact and matters of opinion.

Matters of fact are confined to empirical claims, such as what the boiling point of a substance is, whether lead is denser than water, or whether the planet is warming.

Matters of opinion are non-empirical claims, and include questions of value and of personal preference such as whether it’s ok to eat animals, and whether vanilla ice cream is better than chocolate. Ethics is an exemplar of a system in which matters of fact cannot by themselves decide courses of action.

Matters of opinion can be informed by matters of fact (for example, finding out that animals can suffer may influence whether I choose to eat them), but ultimately they are not answered by matters of fact (why is it relevant if they can suffer?).

Backing up the facts and opinions

Opinions are not just pale shadows of facts; they are judgements and conclusions. They can be the result of careful and sophisticated deliberation in areas for which empirical investigation is inadequate or ill-suited.

While it’s nice to think of the world so neatly divided into matters of fact and matters of opinion, it’s not always so clinical in its precision. For example, it is a fact that I prefer vanilla ice cream over chocolate. In other words, it is apparently a matter of fact that I am having a subjective experience.

But we can heal that potential rift by further restricting matters of fact to those things that can be verified by others.

While it’s true that my ice cream preference could be experimentally indicated by observing my behaviour and interviewing me, it cannot be independently verified by others beyond doubt. I could be faking it.

But we can all agree in principle on whether the atmosphere contains more nitrogen or carbon dioxide because we can share the methodology of inquiry that gives us the answer. We can also agree on matters of value if the case for a particular view is rationally persuasive.

Facts and opinions need not be positioned in opposition to each other, as they have complementary functions in our decision-making. In a rational framework, they are equally useful. But that’s just my opinion – it’s not a fact.

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How to Use Facts in Opinion Writing & Persuasive Writing

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The Gale Review

A blog from Gale International

Disentangling Fact from Opinion in Academic Articles

│By Rhiannon Green, Gale Ambassador at the University of Durham│

As a university student myself, I know first-hand how important it is to read critically when writing academic essays. One reason we must read critically is because academic articles are constructed from both fact and opinion, and it is necessary to differentiate between the two when using them in our own arguments. This is especially true for articles within the discipline of History which are frequently written with more than one agenda in mind; whilst they do seek to inform the reader on a particular historical topic, and include historical information to this end, it is often used in a way that presents and defends the author’s own opinion on that particular topic. Debates around women’s rights, for example, have seen academics use various arguments and angles over the years, and whilst there are undoubtedly “facts” which are relevant to the debate, historians have often used the facts to present their own angle or argument. In this blog post I will use the resources in Gale OneFile –  a component of Gale Reference Complete and home to a vast array of academic articles – to demonstrate the importance of disentangling fact and opinion in academia.

As you can see in the screenshot below, Gale OneFile is found in the “General Research” section of the Gale Reference Complete interface. Gale OneFile has two subsections; Gale General OneFile , which is more vocational in its content, and Gale Academic OneFile , which mostly consists of peer-reviewed journals of a more scholarly nature.

The Difference Between Fact and Opinion

Firstly, it is important to distinguish the difference between fact and opinion, as the line between the two can sometimes become blurred, particularly in academic articles. A typical reading of the term “fact” is something which is known to be true, and thus cannot be contested. In contrast, “opinion” is used to describe someone’s response to an event or action and so is frequently influenced by personal bias. Found in Gale Reference Complete , the articles in Gale OneFile range from those which are heavily factual, to those which are shaped by opinion.

How to Recognise Opinion in Academic Articles

One indicator of opinion in articles is anecdotal evidence which offers up a personalised viewpoint to the reader. Mary Harrington’s recent article in First Things: A Monthly Journal of Religion and Public Life demonstrates this, as she discusses her relationship with feminism by drawing upon her own experiences. However, this is not to say that the article consists solely of opinion, and indeed fact can be found in her discussion of the choices modern American women are making with regards to female work and reproduction. From this, we can see that articles often feature both fact and opinion side by side, and it is the job of the reader to differentiate between the two.

Another way opinion can be recognised is through the process of fact checking. Sometimes students take the information presented to us in academic articles at face value, based on the assumption that scholars are well-informed experts and “must be telling the truth”. Assuming that academia is always factual however, is problematic; close reading often shows that what initially seem like facts may be open to debate or is missing crucial information. Opinion has a huge bearing on the writing of both history and current affairs, with academics commonly taking different lines of argument on the same topic.

Sometimes, the title of the article itself can indicate its own bias, an example being this article on gender equality, which states in the title that it provides “a Christian perspective”. There are often clues to the nature of potential bias in the title of an article. You can also become aware of potential bias by learning more about an author’s political and moral stance.

Moreover, whilst authors of academic articles may include clear and unarguable “facts,” they are often selective with which facts they choose to include, only including those which support their argument. This poses problems for the reader in that other information may be omitted, demonstrating why it is important to draw information from many articles of different standpoints when carrying out your research.

The Illusion of Objectivity

Whilst we can see that that articles often take a certain viewpoint, it is undeniable that they do also present facts which can be useful. And different authors may be more or less subjective or objective.  Sometimes historical articles such as this one from History Today on women’s rights are more heavily informed by fact and led by objectivity. Here, the biographical detail about Emmeline Pankhurst is factual, serving to educate the reader on her life and significance. Students must always remember, however, to question the level of historical accuracy, as some historians are carefully deliberate in their use of fact. And whether anyone can ever write in an entirely unbiased, objective way is itself up for debate! Some details, perhaps biographical details that are commonly accepted, are easily identifiable as fact. But other details may be more nuanced – the extent to which information is factual is not always easy to identify, and so must be considered in relation to other secondary articles.

The value of opinion

It may be your first thought that the end-goal when studying History is to “get to the facts” – that students want to differentiate opinion from fact to “find the truth”, but opinion is the driving force behind historical debate and the study of Humanities subject more generally. Indeed, the discipline of History is built as much on opinion as on fact (some would argue more!). It is only via debating presenting new opinions and arguments that the discipline continues to progress and evolve.

Using Articles in Practice

As I mentioned at the start of this blog post, it is important to always read critically, and this also applies when reading articles in Gale OneFile . This is one way that the highlighting tool provided on the Gale platform can come in handy, as it gives students the opportunity to break the text down into more manageable chunks of information, aiding analysis. This tool can be seen in use in the screenshot below, showing a different article about Emmeline Pankhurst, where I have highlighted fact in yellow, and opinion in green. We can see here that opinion is just as important as fact, with both helping to shape the nature of academic discussion.

Further to this, we know that reputable sourcing is essential to the writing of a good essay, meaning that reading with an awareness of fact and opinion is also vital as it helps students decide which sources to use in the first place.

To conclude, fact and opinion both contribute to informing the line of argument presented in academic articles, and both are useful to your own essays, but it is vital to distinguish between them to ensure you use information correctly and with contextual awareness. As students, we are expected to be “switched on” to the ways in which articles can have bias. This can sometimes be difficult, but techniques such as cross-referencing and highlighting as you read can ensure you’re thinking critically about an article. This is hugely helpful when distinguishing between fact and opinion and, in turn, developing strong arguments of your own.

If you enjoyed reading about disentangling fact and opinion in Gale OneFile , you may like:

• Exploring the History of “Fake News”
• Why Feminism Is Still Very Much Necessary
• and Exploring Gale Reference Complete .

Blog post cover image citation: Image by Agence Olloweb on Unsplash.com https://unsplash.com/photos/d9ILr-dbEdg

About the Author

Rhiannon is currently a finalist at Durham University, studying for a BA in English Literature and History. Gale Resources have been invaluable to her time as a student, and she is keen to share the benefits of digital archives with others. After graduation, she hopes to pursue a career in either publishing or communications, as well as reading as many books as possible. You can find her on LinkedIn and Twitter .

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2-Types of Sources

3. Fact or Opinion

Thinking about the reason an author created a source can be helpful to you because that reason was what dictated the kind of information he/she chose to include. Depending on that purpose, the author may have chosen to include factual, analytical, and objective information. Or, instead, it may have suited his/her purpose to include information that was subjective and therefore less factual and analytical. The author’s reason for producing the source also determined whether he or she included more than one perspective or just his/her own.

Authors typically want to do at least one of the following:

• Inform and educate
• Sell services or products

Combined Purposes

Sometimes authors have a combination of purposes, as when a marketer decides he can sell more smartphones with an informative sales video that also entertains us. The same is true when a singer writes and performs a song that entertains us but that she intends to make available for sale. Other examples of authors having multiple purposes occur in most scholarly writing.

In those cases, authors certainly want to inform and educate their audiences. But they also want to persuade their audiences that what they are reporting and/or postulating is a true description of a situation, event, or phenomenon or a valid argument that their audience must take a particular action. In this blend of scholarly authors’ purposes, the intent to educate and inform is considered to trump the intent to persuade

Why Intent Matters

Authors’ intent usually matters in how useful their information can be to your research project, depending on which information need you are trying to meet. For instance, when you’re looking for sources that will help you actually decide your answer to your research question or evidence for your answer that you will share with your audience, you will want the author’s main purpose to have been to inform or educate his/her audience. That’s because, with that intent, he/she is likely to have used:

• Facts where possible.
• Multiple perspectives instead of just his/her own.
• Little subjective information.
• Seemingly unbiased, objective language that cites where he/she got the information.

The reason you want that kind of source when trying to answer your research question or explaining that answer is that all of those characteristics will lend credibility to the argument you are making with your project. Both you and your audience will simply find it easier to believe—will have more confidence in the argument being made—when you include those types of sources.

Sources whose authors intend only to persuade others won’t meet your information need for an answer to your research question or evidence with which to convince your audience. That’s because they don’t always confine themselves to facts. Instead, they tell us their opinions without backing them up with evidence. If you used those sources, your readers would notice and would be less likely to believe your argument.

Fact vs. Opinion vs. Objective vs. Subjective

Need to brush up on the differences between fact, objective information, subjective information, and opinion?

Fact – Facts are useful to inform or make an argument.

• The United States was established in 1776.
• The pH levels in acids are lower than the pH levels in alkalines.
• Beethoven had a reputation as a virtuoso pianist.

Opinion – Opinions are useful to persuade, but careful readers and listeners will notice and demand evidence to back them up.

• That was a good movie.
• Strawberries taste better than blueberries.
• Timothee Chalamet is the sexiest actor alive.
• The death penalty is wrong.
• Beethoven’s reputation as a virtuoso pianist is overrated.

Objective – Objective information reflects a research finding or multiple perspectives that are not biased.

• “Several studies show that an active lifestyle reduces the risk of heart disease and diabetes.”
• “Studies from the Brown University Medical School show that twenty-somethings eat 25 percent more fast-food meals at this age than they did as teenagers.”

Subjective – Subjective information presents one person or organization’s perspective or interpretation. Subjective information can be meant to distort, or it can reflect educated and informed thinking. All opinions are subjective, but some are backed up with facts more than others.

• “The simple truth is this: As human beings, we were meant to move.”
• “In their thirties, women should stock up on calcium to ensure strong, dense bones and to ward off osteoporosis later in life.” *

*In this quote, it’s mostly the “should” that makes it subjective. The objective version of that quote would read something like: “Studies have shown that women who begin taking calcium in their 30s show stronger bone density and fewer repercussions of osteoporosis than women who did not take calcium at all.” But perhaps there are other data showing complications from taking calcium. That’s why drawing the conclusion that requires a “should” makes the statement subjective.

Choosing & Using Sources: A Guide to Academic Research Copyright © 2015 by Teaching & Learning, Ohio State University Libraries is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Writing an Informative Essay

Informative essays engage readers with new, interesting, and often surprising facts and details about a subject. Informative essays are educational; readers expect to learn something new from them. In fact, much of the reading and writing done in college and the workplace is informative. From textbooks to reports to tutorials like this one, informative writing imparts important and useful information about a topic.

This tutorial refers to the sample informative outline and final essay written by fictional student Paige Turner.

Reasons to Write Informatively

Your purpose for writing and the audience for whom you are writing will impact the depth and breadth of information you provide, but all informative writing aims to present a subject without opinions or bias. Some common reasons to write informatively are to

• report findings that an audience would find interesting,
• present facts that an audience would find useful, and
• communicate information about a person, place, event, issue, or change that would improve an audience’s understanding.

Characteristics of Informative Essays

Informative essays present factual information and do not attempt to sway readers’ opinions about it. Other types of academic and workplace writing do try to influence readers’ opinions:

• Expository essays aim to expose a truth about an issue in order to influence how readers view the issue.
• Persuasive essays aim to influence readers’ opinions, so they will adopt a particular position or take a certain course of action.

Expository and persuasive essays make “arguments.” The only argument an informative essay makes is that something exists, did exist, is happening, or has happened, and the point of the essay is not to convince readers of this but to tell them about it.

• Informative essays seek to enlighten and educate readers, so they can make their own educated opinions and decisions about what to think and how to act.

Strategies for Writing Informatively

Informative essays provide useful information such as facts, examples, and evidence from research in order to help readers understand a topic or see it more clearly. While informative writing does not aim to appeal emotionally to readers in order to change their opinions or behaviors, informative writing should still be engaging to read. Factual information is not necessarily dry or boring. Sometimes facts can be more alarming than fiction!

Writers use various strategies to engage and educate readers. Some strategies include

• introducing the topic with an alarming fact or arresting image;
• asserting what is true or so about the subject in a clear thesis statement;
• organizing the paragraphs logically by grouping related information;
• unifying each paragraph with a topic sentence and controlling idea;
• developing cohesive paragraphs with transition sentences;
• using precise language and terminology appropriate for the topic, purpose, and audience; and
• concluding with a final idea or example that captures the essay’s purpose and leaves a lasting impression.

Five Steps for Getting Started

1. Brainstorm and choose a topic.

• Sample topic : The opioid epidemic in the United States.
• The opiod epidemic or even opiod addiction would would be considered too broad for a single essay, so the next steps aim to narrow this topic down.

2. Next, write a question about the topic that you would like to answer through research.

• Sample question : What major events caused the opioid crisis in the United States?
• This question aims to narrow the topic down to causes of the epidemic in the US.

3. Now go to the Purdue Global Library to find the answers to your research question.

As you begin reading and collecting sources, write down the themes that emerge as common answers. Later, in step four, use the most common answers (or the ones you are most interested in writing and discussing) to construct a thesis statement.

• Sample answers: aggressive marketing, loopholes in prescription drug provider programs, and economic downturn.

4. Next, provide purpose to your paper by creating a thesis statement.

The thesis attempts to frame your research question. The sample thesis below incorporates three of the more common answers for the research question from step two: What caused the opioid crisis in the United States?

• Thesis Statement : Aggressive marketing, loopholes in prescription drug provider programs, and economic downturn contributed to the current opioid crisis in the United States.
• Writing Tip : For additional help with thesis statements, please visit our Writing a Thesis Statement article. For help with writing in 3rd person, see our article on Formal Vs. Informal Writing .

5. Now follow each numbered step in the “Suggested Outline Format and Sample” below.

Sample answers have been provided for “I. Introduction” and “II. First Cause.” A complete sample outline can be seen here. A complete sample informative essay can be seen here.

Suggested Outline Format and Sample

I. INTRODUCTION

A. First provide a topic sentence that introduces the main topic: Sample topic sentence : There is a current prescription pain medication addiction and abuse epidemic possibly caused by an excessive over prescription of these medications.

B. Now provide a couple sentences with evidence to support the main topic: Sample sentence one with evidence to support the main topic : According to Dr. Nora Volkow, Director of National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA), in testimony before the 115th Congress, “In 2016, over 11 million Americans misused prescription opioids … and 2.1 million had an opioid use disorder due to prescription opioids” (Federal Efforts to Combat the Opioid Crisis, 2017, p. 2).

C. Sample sentence two with evidence to support the main topic : Volkow indicated “more than 300,000 Americans have died of an opioid overdose” since 2013 (Federal Efforts to Combat the Opioid Crisis, 2017, p.2).

D. Sample sentence three with evidence to support the main topic : According to Perez-Pena (2017), the Center for Disease Control and Prevention reported more than 25,000 people in the United States died in 2015 from overdosing on opioids Fentanyl, Oxycodone, and Hydrocodone.

E. Toward the end of the introduction, include your thesis statement written in the 3rd-person point-of-view: Sample thesis statement : Potential solutions to the growing opioid epidemic may be illuminated by examining how opioid addiction is triggered through aggressive pharmaceutical marketing, how opioid addiction manifests among prescribed patients, and how economic downturns play a role in the increase of opioid addiction.

F. Write down the library sources you can use in this introductory paragraph to help support the main topic.

• Federal Efforts to Combat the Opioid Crisis, 2017
• Perez-Pena, 2017
• Writing Tip : For more help writing an introduction, please refer to this article on introductions and conclusions .

II. FIRST CAUSE

A. First provide a topic sentence that introduces the first cause of the opioid epidemic: Sample topic sentence that introduces the first cause : One issue that helped contribute to the opioid epidemic is aggressive marketing by pharmaceutical manufacturers.

B. Now provide sentences with evidence to support the first cause: Sample sentence one with evidence that supports the first cause : Perez-Pena (2017) concluded that while the healthcare industry was attempting to effectively and efficiently treat patients with chronic pain, pharmaceutical companies were providing funding to prominent doctors, medical societies, and patient advocacy groups in order to win support for a particular drug’s adoption and usage.

C. Sample sentence two with evidence to support the first cause : In fact, pharmaceutical companies continue to spend millions on promotional activities and materials that deny or trivialize any risks of opioid use while at the same time overstating each drug’s benefit (Perez-Pina, 2017).

D. Next, add more information or provide concluding or transitional sentences that foreshadows the upcoming second cause: Sample concluding and transitional sentence that foreshadow the second cause : Although aggressive marketing by pharmaceutical companies played a large role in opioid addiction, patients are to blame too, as many take advantage of holes in the healthcare provider system in order to remedy their addiction.

E. Write down the library sources you can use in this body paragraph to help support the first cause:

• Writing Tip : For more assistance working with sources, please visit the Using Sources page here.

III. SECOND CAUSE

A. First provide a topic sentence that introduces the second cause.

B. Now provide sentences with evidence to support the second cause.

C. Next, add more information or provide concluding or transitional sentences that foreshadows the upcoming third cause.

D. Write down the library sources you can use in this body paragraph to help support the second cause:

• Writing Tip : Listen to Writing Powerful Sentences for information and features of effective writing.

IV. THIRD CAUSE

A. First provide a topic sentence that introduces the third cause.

B. Now provide sentences with evidence to support the third cause.

C. Next, add more information or provide a concluding sentence or two.

D. Write down the library sources you can use in this body paragraph to help support the third cause:

V. CONCLUSION: Summary of key points and evidence discussed.

• Writing Tip : For more help writing a conclusion, refer to this podcast on endings .
• Writing Tip : Have a question? Leave a comment below or Purdue Global students, click here to access the Purdue Global Writing Center tutoring platform and available staff.
• Writing Tip : Ready to have someone look at your paper? Purdue Global students, click here to submit your assignment for feedback through our video paper review service.

See a Sample Informative Essay Outline here .

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dang bro i got an A

Having faith with all this mentioned, that i will pass my english class at a college. Thank you for posting.

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How to use your reading to support your points.

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All university research and scholarship is based on evidence, and your own assessed work as a student is no different. To convince your marker that you know what you’re talking about, you can’t just make a statement and expect them to accept it; you will need to provide robust evidence to justify your point, show how you have arrived at your conclusions and prove that it’s based on solid grounds. Everyone is entitled to their own opinion, and we are interested in your ideas, but you need to supply proof and show how it supports your statement, to persuade others of what you think. You might have seen this reflected in marking criteria, assignment guidelines or feedback that say you should ‘use evidence’, to ‘support your argument’ and ‘back up your point’.  

What counts as evidence?

The most universal way to support a point is to provide a reference to a source which backs it up: either someone who agrees with you, or evidence that supports you. As your studies progress, this strategy may need to become more in depth, perhaps referencing multiple sources or commenting critically on them. One reference is good, but might be overly selective, ignoring contradictory or better sources. A carefully chosen reference from a highly regarded study or scholar is even better, and best of all is not one, but several sources which demonstrate a weight of evidence building up. More than three or four references starts to become a bit redundant though – the point is made!

What counts as acceptable evidence will vary depending on your subject. Arts and Humanities are based in more subjective argument and interpretation; Social Sciences often draw on qualitative and quantitative data, and Physical and Medical Sciences from empirical data. In some instances, your own personal experience can count as valid evidence, if you were writing a reflective assignment, for example, but it would not be appropriate if writing a report as it might not be representative, and cannot be verified by the reader.  

Common knowledge

You don’t have to back up absolutely everything   you say with evidence (or you’d soon run out of wordcount to advance your own point properly!). Some things are common knowledge. That could mean that a fact is just generally known by everyone, and not disputed or in doubt. This could include:

• facts such as London is the capital of the United Kingdom
• well documented dates such as the start of the First World War in 1914
• H 2 0 being the chemical formula for water
• things which everyone knows from their lived experience, such as the sky is blue.

Common knowledge could also mean a generally known fact in your specialist field of study, not necessarily known to lay people, but accepted as a basic, fundamental knowledge by everyone in your discipline. However, the higher your level of study, the more you can take specialist general knowledge for granted. A PhD student can be assumed to know the basics and not need to back them up, but a first year undergraduate might have to prove to their lecturer that they do understand what they are talking about, with a reference. If you aren’t sure if something is general knowledge or not, look at the texts you are reading and see if they include a reference to that fact or not. If not, it’s probably generally known. And you might need a reference to general knowledge that comes from outside your own subject.  

Have I backed my point up?

To check if you’re supporting your own points with evidence, imagine that the reader is asking you after each statement that you make, ‘ how do you know that? How can you be sure of that? ’ If you have included something in your writing which robustly answers this question, then you’ve backed your point up. If not, think about what kind of evidence you could provide that would satisfy the reader.

You may not be able to find a citation that does exactly what you need it to do, but that doesn’t mean you can’t back your point up; a reference isn’t the only way to do this. You don’t have to find someone else who has said it first; you can make your own points in your own right too, if you support them. This becomes more true as you progress to higher stages of study. Think about your answer to the question, ‘How do I know that’, and what kind of evidence would best suit your purpose: 

How do I know that?

• ‘I read it’. Then show the reader where you read it, with a reference 
• ‘I worked it out based on something I read’  Then reference the data or opinion you based it on and explain how you built on that evidence with your reasoning. 
• ‘I worked it all out myself’ Then show your reasoning in full.  
• ‘I saw it in my own research’  Then show the reader your own supporting data or sources that you have collected with your analysis (this is more likely in a dissertation or research report or project where you have time to do your own research)
• ‘I don’t know – I just know! Don’t we all know that?’  Then this might be general knowledge (if you’re sure we all know that!) 

All of these are valid ways to back up your own points, but some require you to do original research, which might be outside the scope of your assignment, or disproportionate to the importance of the point you’re making!

Using evidence to support your point

Sometimes it’s enough to include a reference at the end of your sentence, but at other times, you might need to do more than just add the evidence. Evidence doesn’t speak for itself, but often needs to be explained, analysed and interpreted so that the reader understands how it supports your point. You might feel that the reader can work it out for themselves, but it’s your job as the writer to do that work, not the reader. You might after all see it in different ways, and you want the reader to follow your reasoning and see it as you do. As you write or edit your draft, ask yourself:

• What does this evidence mean to you? How should the reader interpret it? Why is that interpretation the most convincing one?
• How does this evidence support your argument? 
• To what extent does it support you? Are there any limitations or gaps you want to address or acknowledge?
• What are the implications of this evidence for your argument? “So what”?

Conflicting evidence

Sometimes we find evidence that actually contradicts what we want to say and our natural reaction might be to ignore it and hope that the reader isn’t aware of it. However, you can actually strengthen your work by acknowledging that conflicting evidence. Briefly explain why you think it is not as convincing or does not actually undermine your case, dismiss it and move on. This shows that you can critique your own work; you have considered various possibilities, actively looked for counterarguments, tested your thinking and have come to a carefully considered conclusion. Of course, if you can’t counter the conflicting evidence, then you might need to rethink your point!

What to do when you can't find evidence

Alternatively, you might not be able to find the evidence you need to support your claim. This might mean various things:

• that you need to broaden your search strategy (but set yourself a cut-off point so you don’t look for so long that you run out of time for the rest of your assignment)
• that what you assumed to be true isn’t quite right (in which case, you might need to do more reading and thinking)
• that no-one else has claimed or demonstrated this yet (which might be an opportunity to do some original thinking of your own, if you can evidence it and have time to research it).

Before you invest time in these options, consider how key the point is to your overall assignment. Is it essential or just a side issue?

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Using evidence to support your argument.

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What is Fact-checking?

Is it important to fact-check content, fact-checking and proofreading tips, is fact-checking part of proofreading or editing, what to check, counter un-factual content with different approaches, benefits of checking facts while proofreading, to conclude, comprehensive guide: what is fact-checking, and why does it matter.

• Read in 07 mins Published: 24-Aug-2023

Fact-checking is one of the most important elements of the proofreading process. As the name implies, fact-checking in proofreading involves verifying the accuracy of the information included in a document. This practice is essential for producing factually accurate content material that is both reliable and credible.

Fact-checking is the method used to verify the integrity of unsettled reporting and statements. It can be done before or after the content or material is released or distributed. There are two types of Fact-checking:

• Internal fact-checking- It can be done in-house by the publication to protect factually incorrect content from being published;
• External fact-checking- It occurs when a third party examines the text.

On the other hand, proofreading is verifying text for mistakes and grammatical errors. It typically focuses on aspects of writing such as grammar, spelling, and punctuation, although more in-depth proofreading may also highlight style, clarity, and structure issues. In academic writing, users must also double-check the referencing, formatting, and way the numbers are presented.

It can be done by going through the text carefully and systematically, line by line, to check for any errors or anomalies that may have been overlooked in the initial writing process. It is also important to read out loud, as this will help to identify any potential issues with clarity and flow. Also, a Proofreader should check for consistency in the use of languages, such as spelling and capitalization, as well as for the accuracy of the content itself.

For example, a Proofreader may check that the proper names of people and places have been spelled correctly throughout the text or that all dates and numbers are accurate.

To ensure the text is accurate and clear, a Proofreader should also examine the text for any grammatical errors, typos, and other mistakes that could detract from the overall quality and readability of the written material. It exemplifies the importance of fact-checking and how it can be carried out perfectly before it is published online.

Interesting Read: Difference Between Copy Editor and Proofreader

Fact-checking is important in the content writing and formation approach since less-factual content can greatly influence people's opinions, and it can largely report their actions. People will make the wrong decisions if they build their actions on the wrong information, and these decisions can lead to unintended results.

For instance, posting biased or un-factual content on social media without checking credibility could negatively impact the public's point of view of your trustworthiness.

Un-factual content or writeups could lead to serious consequences, both legal and reputational. It is important to take some time to verify the accuracy of any written piece before publishing it. Also, knowing the potential consequences of sharing inaccurate information is essential.

Fact-checking in proofreading is essential to ensure accuracy and prevent the spread of misinformation. It requires Subject Matter Expert (SME) involvement to ensure the accuracy and credibility of the information being verified. The responsibilities of subject matter experts in fact-checking include verifying the accuracy of claims, cross-referencing multiple sources, and ensuring that the information is unbiased and reliable. SMEs possess deep knowledge and expertise in their respective fields, enabling them to evaluate claims and provide reliable assessments. It involves:

• Demonstrating the accuracy of statements and sources
• Cross-referencing and researching the claims made
• Providing context for the information presented

Doing so ensures that the information is accurate, complete, and current. Procuring online fact-checking services also helps ensure the information is relevant to the topic and properly interpreted. Cross-referencing and researching claims makes it easier to distinguish between fact and opinion and to identify any potential bias in the information presented.

Cross-checking the facts while proofreading with reputable sources can help verify the accuracy of the information. It can help identify any potential bias or manipulation of information in the text, allowing people to ensure that the information is relevant to the topic and properly interpreted. What can you do?

• Verify multiple sources
• Consult experts
• Research the author's background

Fact-checking requires careful examination of any data presented and an analysis of the potential implications of the information.

Comparing the author's sources, researching their publications, and examining the credentials they possess are all important steps in fact-checking. It is also necessary to assess the author's intent, any potential biases, and the accuracy of their claims.

For example, when analyzing a source, it is important to consider whether the facts presented are supported by reliable evidence, such as peer-reviewed studies, or if the claims are backed by personal opinion or hearsay.

It is also important to consider the source's motives, such as whether they have a vested interest in the information they present. Moreover, one should consider any potential biases that may be present in the source.

Freshers in the field are confused about whether fact-checking is part of the proofreading or editing process. And, if you have the same question, we can assure you it will be gone after reading this.

Fact-checking is an important element in both the proofreading and editing process.

Various online fact-checking services in the industry today use verifying the accuracy of the facts mentioned in the text, such as statistics, dates, and quotes. It helps to ensure that the information presented is accurate and up-to-date.

There is a thin line and a minor difference between proofreading and editing ; people consider both of them alike. Fact-checking helps to ensure that the information presented is credible and reliable. It also ensures that the text is free of errors that could lead to misinterpretation or confusion. Also, fact-checking can help identify any potential issues arising from incorrect information.

For example, if an article discusses a new law, the editor should fact-check the article to make sure the facts, such as dates, names, and numbers, are correct.

The editor should also ensure that the article is unbiased and does not express the author's opinion. Finally, the editor should ensure the article follows the publication's style guide.

Also Read: 8 Different Types of Copy Editing

Facts that demand checking in non-fictional documents are:

• Names of places, people, or companies.
• Official titles and other labels.
• Historical affairs dates.
• Addresses - Physical or email.
• Teachings for conducting an action or process.
• Different verifiable events and facts.

Rules can provide step-by-step instructions on completing a task, ensuring the action is completed correctly and efficiently. They can also be used to document historical events, providing facts and evidence that can be used to verify the accuracy of a narrative. Hence, Fact-checking is an essential part of proofreading content.

There are different approaches, in different societies, against fake news or fictitious types of typesetting content. It includes:

• media and news literacy programs
• awareness campaigns
• legal measures against those involved in coordinated misinformation drives
• warning the public through fact-checking

Numerous studies confirm that fact-checking is an effective tool to counter misinformation. Two researchers from The Ohio State University in the US and George Washington University conducted such a study. The researchers found that experiments conducted simultaneously in Nigeria, Argentina, the United Kingdom, and South Africa reveal that fact-checks decrease belief in misinformation while increasing factual accuracy.

Proofreading is essential to the writing process, whether you are writing a book, an article, or a blog post. It ensures that your content is accurate, well-structured, and error-free. As discussed above, fact-checking is an essential part of the proofreading process.

In writing, accuracy is key, and Fact-checking helps ensure that your content is reliable, trustworthy, and free from errors. It helps to ensure that the information you present is accurate and up-to-date. It can help to ensure that your document is credible and authoritative. Some important benefits it offers are:

Fact-checking can help to improve your writing

By verifying the accuracy of facts, you can reduce errors and ensure that your claims are supported by evidence. It can help to make your write-up more persuasive. In addition, it can help to build trust with your readers and ensure that your content is reliable and trustworthy.

Fact-checking can help to prevent plagiarism

By verifying the accuracy of facts, you can avoid using others' work without giving credit. It can help to protect your work and preserve your intellectual property.

Fact-checking saves time

By verifying facts, you can avoid wasting time researching and verifying information. It can help to streamline the writing process and make it more efficient.

Fact-checking is an important part of the proofreading process and a modern, classifiable category of Journalism. Its goal is to provide unbiased, accurate analysis of public statements to restore public confusion and increase understanding of vital issues.

Modern fact-checking analyses rates and claims them as true or false. Fact-checkers may clarify their claim assessment by providing background and context information.

If you are looking for fact-checking services, Acadecraft can assist you with it. Our professional proofreading services ensure that our information is accurate and reliable.

References: 

National Library of Medicine

• proofreading
• content development
• copy editing

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Mary has extensive experience of over 5 years in writing on a wide range of topics, including healthcare, technology, science, and business. She is highly knowledgeable and skilled in researching and crafting accurate, well-structured, and engaging content. Mary is a reliable and professional writer who is always willing to go the extra mile to ensure her clients are satisfied with her work. She is committed to delivering quality content on time and within budget.

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Facts, Opinions & the Importance of Being Informed

Recently, we shared a  video  about making choices and decisions. Making choices is an important right that all people have. Before deciding something or making a choice, you need information about the topic.

Both facts and opinions matter when it comes to decision-making and can impact your choice. Understanding the difference between fact and opinion is necessary and helps keep you informed, which is needed during voting season.  

What is a fact?

Facts are always true and are proven through research. For example – FACT: Jared Polis is the current governor of the state of Colorado.

What is an opinion?

An opinion cannot be proven; it is something you think or feel. Your opinion may be different than someone else’s, and that is okay. For example – OPINION: Colorado is the best state in the United States of America.

Watch this  video  to learn more about fact vs. opinion.

Taking time to research a topic is the best way to figure out the facts. Research might mean searching the internet to read articles, watch videos, or visiting the local library to find a book on the subject. Keep in mind that you might also find many opinions when you are searching for facts.

Whenever doing research, ask yourself these questions to determine if the information is a fact or opinion.

During voting season, it is crucial to know the difference between fact and opinion. Watch this fun video that shows the different news source options and how to be an informed consumer of information. 

How to Read the News  

Being informed is the first step to being an educated voter!

If you have any questions about voter engagement, please complete this form:  https://form.jotform.com/212074369511149 .

27 Facts on the Importance of Education (Essay or Speech)

Chris Drew (PhD)

Dr. Chris Drew is the founder of the Helpful Professor. He holds a PhD in education and has published over 20 articles in scholarly journals. He is the former editor of the Journal of Learning Development in Higher Education. [Image Descriptor: Photo of Chris]

Learn about our Editorial Process

Are you in need of ideas for an importance of education essay?

Here is a list of 27 ideas that will get you started!

These ideas come from a variety of online sources and links have been provided in case you need to provide references in your essay .

This article lists ideas on the importance of education to a person’s life (Points 1 – 16) and to society (Points 17 – 27).

Importance of Education to a Person’s Life

1. education helps people out of poverty.

Poverty is linked to low education . Families that are poor are usually less educated than families that are rich. Plus, if you are born into a low educated poor family, chances are high that you too will end up low educated and poor.

One way poverty affects education is through the direct costs. Even when school is free, the costs of uniforms, travel, and so on can be very difficult for families to cover.

To escape the poverty trap cycle , people need to gain a higher education than their parents and find upwardly mobile employment (this means: jobs that help you get from the working class into the middle class).

Here’s some facts to back up this point.

A recent report found that people with a college education are statistically less likely to be in poverty. Of people over the age of 25, only 2% of college graduates were in poverty. That compares to 13% of high school graduates over 25.

Related Article: How Can Health Influence Learning?

2. Education helps People make More Money

Jobs that require a higher education are usually more highly paid than unskilled jobs. This is because the jobs are more difficult and require a more specialized skillset. If you get an education in a skill area where there is a shortage of available workers, your wages will increase.

To underscore this point, Brookings presented findings that show:

“An individual with a college degree is nearly nine times more likely to make over $100,000 than someone with only a high school diploma and 13 times more likely to make more than $200,000 per year.”

Today, jobs that are in demand, require a high education and pay quite well include:

• Software developer (USD $101,000)
• Health care administrator (USD $98,000)
• Medical Technologist (USD $51,000)

Source: CNBC .

3. Highly Educated People have a Better chance of Getting a Job

Jobs are not that easy to come by these days – even for people with degrees. But there’s statistically a higher chance of you getting a job if you have a higher education.

The 2017 report Education Pays: The Benefits of Higher Education for Individuals and Society found that people with higher education have lower rates of unemployment.

In 2015, younger people (ages 25 – 34) with bachelor’s degrees had an unemployment rate of 2.6%. High school graduates of the same age range had an unemployment rate of 8.1 percent.

That’s a huge difference that underscores the correlation between education and employability.

>>>You Might Also Like: 21+ Ways to Make an Essay Longer

4. Highly Educated People are Statistically Healthier

Statistically, the higher your education, the healthier you are. This could potentially be due to a few factors including:

• Stable jobs with regular hours allow you to plan exercise;
• Cultural differences between working-class and middle-class people;
• More money to participate in recreational activities.

Whatever the reason, the facts stand for themselves. One of the major facts is this:

In 2014, 26% of high school graduates smoked cigarettes. In the same year, only 8% of college graduates smoked cigarettes.

Source: Education Pays: The Benefits of Higher Education for Individuals and Society

5. Highly Educated People Volunteer More

Educated people tend to do better when it comes to volunteering. The reasons for this may be very similar to the reasons for being more fit. Reasons could include:

• Stable jobs with regular hours allow time to plan regular volunteering hours;
• Highly educated people are less likely to work two jobs;
• People who are well educated have more money to travel to and from their volunteering locations.

Again, it’s a good idea to back this claim up with some facts.

In 2015, 39% of college graduates reported that they volunteered that year. Among high school graduates, it was just 16% who reported that they volunteered.

6. Education helps People make Better Decisions

We have already established that people with a higher education have more job security and more money.

The flow-on effect of this is that they can make better decisions.

When you are more certain that you have money coming in every week, you’ll be able to plan our your budget more. You’ll also have the money to make decisions about living in safer neighborhoods with more public services.

Furthermore, higher education usually teaches critical thinking skills . This means people who’ve been trained in critical thinking may have an advantage when making tough decisions. They will have the education to know how to handle complex decision-making processes.

7. Education helps People make Long-Term Decisions

Not only will highly educated people have the skillset to make tough decisions, they will also have the money to make long-term decisions.

If you have a stable job with a high income each month, you’re more likely to get a loan for a home. You also have the freedom to start investing into your retirement funds.

As you can see, the correlation between high education and high incomes has huge flow-on effects for quality of life.

8. Education can increase Social Status

An education from a respected educational institution can open lots of doors for you.

Many students from around the world flock to nations like the United Kingdom, United States and Australia to get degrees from top-ranking education nations.

Similarly, if you make it to a higher-ranking school or university such as Harvard, Yale, Cambridge, Oxford or Princeton you’ll get a lot of social status just for having attended the university.

Even at compulsory school age there are elite institutions. For example, the private school named Eton College in the UK is known for producing no less than 19 British Prime Minsters .

When you get social status from going to a good school or university, we say you have institutional or cultural capital .

This degree from a well-respected university may get you that job interview you were looking for. But, it could also get you social status amongst family, friends and – yes – potential future partners!

9. Education makes People better Conversationalists

Have you ever had a conversation with a person and they were just really interesting? They seemed to know a lot of things and be able to talk to you about anything.

Well, that person is likely very well educated.

In fact, we have some words to describe people who are well-educated in a broad range of topics. You could call them:

• A renaissance man
• A renaissance woman

There is also a type of education designed to help you become a polymath. It’s called a Liberal Education and you get it by doing a Liberal Arts Degree from a university.

10. Education helps People get Access to Important Information

In the dark ages in Europe very few people had the ability to read.

This meant that knowledge held in books was only available to very few people.

When people don’t have access to knowledge, they’re in a very vulnerable situation. They can’t educate themselves on important information and have a harder time making decisions.

Nowadays, most people in the developed world can read. This huge advance in education levels has enabled any of us to go out there and access information.

In fact, you’re doing that right now! Aren’t you glad you can read?

Educated people also have the knowledge about how to access important information. We’re taught at school about encyclopaedias and libraries. At university we’re taught about scholarly sources and how to access them .

Combine the ability to read with the skills to access information and anyone can help educate themselves on anything. You just need a basic level of education to get started!

11. Education enables People to Critically Analyze ideas

At school, you’re not just being taught facts.

You’re also being taught how to think.

This ability to think involves some pretty advanced strategies like:

• Skepticism: The reluctance to believe something until you see the facts;
• Critical Thinking : the ability to look at something from multiple perspectives;
• Analytical Thinking : the ability to investigate something deeply to find answers.

With these fantastic skills, you can go a long way! You’re less likely to be tricked into believing something that’s not true. You’ll also be able to think things through and come to reasonable, rational conclusions.

12. Education can Help People (especially Women) become Independent and Powerful

Women’s education is a major focus of the United Nations.

This is because many women who are not educated are dependent on their families or husbands to make money.

When women become educated, they can become independent . They can work in better paid jobs, move into more powerful positions in workplaces, and earn an income that’s independent of their husbands.

In the long run, this will mean that women have an equal say in the development of our world.

Furthermore, women with jobs can contribute financially to their families which can help move the whole family out of poverty and give them a better standard of living.

Read Also: Why is School Important?

13. Education reduces Unplanned Pregnancies and Sexual Diseases

Basic education on sex and relationships can dramatically reduce sexual diseases and unplanned pregnancies.

Here’s some facts:

The Borgen Project cites that completion of primary school will reduce a person’s chances of getting HIV. In fact, it reduces girls’ chances of contracting the illness 3-fold.

Educated people also have smaller families and they have them later in life. In Mali , women with a high school education have an average of 3 children. Women without a high school education have an average of 7 children.

14. Education helps us Realize our own Potential

Through education, we learn about what we like and don’t like. We learn all about things from science, math, languages and history.

After contemplating all of these different topics, we’ll be more capable of living our best life.

If you don’t get educated, you won’t open up your horizons and learn about the world. You may end up being stuck in an insular life without having experienced all the great things life has to offer.

You don’t need to go to school for this. Maybe being educated for you is just about reading books on a lot of different topics.

Either way, by educating yourself, you can realize your potential and live a more meaningful life.

15. Education can bring Enjoyment to People’s Lives

Unfortunately, it’s often overlooked that education can be pleasurable for its own sake.

I’ve talked all about how education can help people out of poverty, get them jobs, make them more powerful and less sick.

But it’s also important to remember that education can simply be enjoyable and therefore be important for helping you be happy.

Have you ever learned something really cool and just been glad you know that information now?

That’s what I mean by education being a fun activity on its own.

When people are learning just because they love learning, we say they are intrinsically motivated . This is the opposite to extrinsic motivation where people learn things so they can get a reward like a better job.

16. Education makes you more Tolerant

There is some evidence that highly educated people may be more tolerant than lowly educated people.

To take just one example, people from Latin America with a high school education are 45% more tolerant toward people with HIV than Latin Americans with only an elementary school education.

Similarly, Lorelle Espinosa argues that colleges are ideal locations for teaching tolerance. She argues:

The foundations of tolerance run deep in the college classroom, where students learn and confront new ideas, issues and experiences at times vastly different than their own.

This is, of course, if you have a good teacher who’ll teach you different people’s perspectives!

>>>You Might Also Like: How to Write a Top University Essay

Importance of Education to Society

17. education prevents diseases in society.

Health education in classrooms can make an entire society healthier and live longer.

Health care education helps people avoid risky activities and behaviors, conduct basic first aid when someone is injured, and learn when they need to see a doctor.

The Population Reference Bureau argues that education of women on matters of health is especially important because they often set the standards for household behaviors like regularly washing your hands.

Educating children on health is also very important for the future health of a society.

That’s why Save the Children spends a lot of money on health education in developing countries. Here’s what they say the benefit of education is for children’s health:

Most importantly, through education, students learn how to adapt their daily habits to improve their health, nutrition, hygiene and prevent HIV and AIDS, gaining these important skills and behaviors for life.

18. Education helps a Country’s Economy Grow

When the population of a country is more educated, the whole country gets wealthier. This surely highlights the importance of education!

Here’s some facts that might be useful for you:

Hanushek and Wobmann (2010) looked at the evidence on the links between economic growth and education. They found that good quality education systems have a strong connection to long-term economic growth in a society.

Here’s their conclusion:

Economic growth is strongly affected by the skills of workers. What people know matters.

Hassan and Rafaz (2017) looked at economic growth in Pakastan between 1990 and 2016. They argue that:

[A] 1% increase in female education, female labour force participation, education expenditure and fertility rate causes 96% increase in GDP of Pakistan

Woah! Education of women appears to be a powerful way of increasing the wealth of entire societies.

19. Education can attract High Paying Jobs of the 21 st Century

You might have heard that manufacturing and factory jobs are becoming pretty rare in developed nations.

Because the high paying jobs of the future won’t be in unskilled labor. Those jobs are disappearing and going to poorer nations.

Instead, all the good jobs of the future will require a very high education level.

Often teachers like me talk about skills for the 21 st Century . These are skills like:

• Creative thinking ;
• Critical thinking;
• Communication;
• Collaboration;
• Digital literacy

If children today aren’t educated on these important skills, they’ll have trouble finding the best jobs. And if a whole society falls behind in education, those good jobs will move overseas to where the most highly educated workers can be found.

20. Education can Prevent Wars and Conflicts

History lessons can be very powerful for helping is prevent the mistakes of the past.

If you want to avoid the mistakes of history, you have to learn about how they were made. By educating people about the events leading up to World War 1 and 2, we might be able to teach people how to avoid the same mistakes again.

Similarly, if a society is well educated on the dangers and heartbreak of wars, those wars might be prevented.

This happened during the Vietnam War when students on college campuses began protesting the war . These students worked hard to teach people all over the United States about what was really happening in Vietnam.

War journalists were also instrumental in educating the public on the terrible effects of the war. Video footage, photos and news reports sent back to the United States helped educate the population and helped boost the anti-war efforts.

21. Education is good for Democracy

Most first world nations ensure children are taught democratic citizenship .

Teaching the values of democratic societies – like the fact that we should elect our leaders – helps to keep democracy going.

If we don’t teach about how good democracy is for our freedom and prosperity, we may sleepwalk into an evil dictatorship!

Democracy is about more than voting. It’s about learning the importance of treating each other respectfully, volunteering in our community, and respecting each other’s liberty.

I think Senator Michael Bennet sums this one up well when he says in his blog post :

With education, the common man would be able to select leaders wisely and fight back against the tyrannical instincts of those in power.

22. Education leads to Medical and Technological Breakthroughs

Before we became obsessed with the link between education and money, societies still invested heavily in public universities.

Because strong higher education systems can lead to technological and medical breakthroughs.

Here’s a few things that people invented while learning and researching at universities:

• The Seat Belt: Invented at Cornell University
• Gatorade: Unvented at the University of Florida
• Ultrasound: Developed at the University of Vienna
• CAT Scans: Developed at Georgetown University
• GPS: Developed at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology
• Polio Vaccine: Developed at the University of Pittsburgh

23. Education can lead to Entrepreneurship

The online website Talk Business argues that entrepreneurs are always in need of more education. They argue:

…at their core [Entrepreneurs] are problem solvers and spend their time investigating potential solutions.

In order to solve problems, entrepreneurs enroll themselves in courses, read books, listen to podcasts and pay for mentors. In other words, they’re huge self-educators.

The article goes on to explain that entrepreneurs often don’t seek out a formal education from a school or university. Instead, they seek out answers to their questions from people who have already solved the problems.

So, education is good for business – but don’t narrow your definition of education. Education can come in all shapes and sizes.

24. Education may be the Solution to Global Problems like Climate Change

There’s two ways education can help us get out of the problem of climate change.

Firstly, educating people about sustainability can help us to reduce our ecological footprint on this world. If we recycle more, consume less goods, and ensure we’re cleaning up after ourselves, we can do a lot to help the environment.

Secondly, educating future environmental scientists is vital for finding the solutions to our current environmental problems.

Scientists of the future might find ways to dramatically reduce carbon emissions, reduce the temperature of the globe, or come up with better ways to produce energy.

In the race against time to solve the climate crisis, education may just be the thing that saves us from ourselves.

25. Education is important for Creating a Cohesive Society

Education helps us learn how to behave appropriately.

Emile Durkheim is a major theorist who came up with this concept.

According to Durkheim, schooling is all about ‘socialization’.

By this, he means we go to school to learn about more than maths and science. School has a hidden curriculum . The hidden curriculum is all the things we learn above and beyond our textbooks.

The hidden curriculum includes:

• Learning manners;
• Learning to get along with each other;
• Learning to respect other people’s privacy;
• Learning to follow the rules for the good of society;
• and many more things besides!

So, without schools teaching us how to get along, there may be many more conflicts in our communities.

26. Education passes on Cultural Values, Heritage and Information from one Generation to the Next

How did you learn about Christmas? How about the 4 th of July? How did you learn about Native Americans?

We learn a lot of these things from school.

So, education also teaches us about our culture and who we are.

This usually takes place in history classes where we learn about the history of our nations and our world.

But we also learn cultural values from the hidden curriculum (If you haven’t read point 25, I talk about the hidden curriculum there).

For example, in western culture it’s polite to look people in the eyes and shake their hands. We also respect our elders. These are cultural values that are taught to us in everyday conversations at school.

27. Education can lead to Gender Equality

There is a lot of evidence that says education is the key to creating a more equal world.

For example, UNESCO states that women tend to be less educated than men in developing countries. However, women overall show more concern for the environment.

Why is this a problem?

Because at the moment women aren’t empowered enough (through education) to create change. More educated women means more power for women to effect change.

Here’s an example:

“Women constitute almost two-thirds of the 758 million adults who are unable to read or write a sentence – a vast pool of people we are not empowering to help us fight environmental shifts” ( UNESCO )

There is also the problem of gender stereotypes, which can be challenged through education . If we educate more people about justice and equality, gender stereotypes will diminish which will be good for gender equality.

Final Thoughts

Any importance of education speech or essay needs facts and figures backing it up. Use these 27 key points on the importance of education for your next essay!

You could also get facts from the following two sources:

• 23 Major Barriers to Education
• 11 Lifelong Effects of Lack of Education

• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd-2/ 10 Reasons you’re Perpetually Single
• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd-2/ 20 Montessori Toddler Bedrooms (Design Inspiration)
• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd-2/ 21 Montessori Homeschool Setups
• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd-2/ 101 Hidden Talents Examples

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Knowing facts still matters (even in an age of wikipedia).

A popular meme is that knowing a lot of facts is unimportant for being able to think well. Albert Einstein stated this idea best when he said, “Imagination is more important than knowledge.”

Perhaps in a previous time, when instant access to answers on Google or Wikipedia wasn’t available, facts were important. But nowadays, the meme goes, it’s more important to know how to think about things, rather than know a lot of facts.

Unfortunately, this isn’t true. Factual knowledge isn’t just important, it probably underlies the very capacity for imagination that Einstein valued. Here’s cognitive scientist Daniel Willingham’s explanation :

“Knowledge is more important [than imagination], because it’s a prerequisite for imagination, or at least the sort of imagination that leads to problem solving, decision-making and creativity. “[T]he cognitive processes that are most esteemed—logical thinking, problem solving, and the like—are intertwined with knowledge. It is certainly true that facts without skills to use them are of little value. It is equally true that one cannot deploy thinking skills effectively without factual knowledge.”

Knowledge is Exponential Growth

Factual knowledge matters because it determines the speed you can acquire new knowledge on a topic. The more you know, the faster you learn. The smart get smarter.

Experiments confirm this idea. In one study , participants were given a topic that was unfamiliar to them. Some were given the opportunity to learn more about the topic than others. At the end of the study, these two groups were measured on their ability to learn new facts, neither group knew, about that topic. The group which had previously studied the topic learned the new facts faster than the group who didn’t.

Knowing more about a subject also allows you to understand more of what you read and listen to. In a different study , participants were asked to read a description of a baseball game. Those who had higher prior knowledge of baseball before the study were able to remember more details about the passage than those who didn’t.

Reasoning isn’t independent from what you know. Thinking about something isn’t divorced from knowledge, but dependent on it. You can’t reason critically or creatively without first having amassed a large amount of factual knowledge.

This is why the existence of Google and Wikipedia doesn’t reduce the need to learn facts. Something being a Google search away doesn’t mean it’s available in the background to allow you to parse new information easily.

Learning Facts Doesn’t Equal Rote Memorization

Knowing facts is clearly important, but I don’t want to suggest that everyone should get flashcards out and start memorizing details like a bad history class. Facts are important, but connected facts, ones that are linked to concepts and contexts are more important.

Generally the only time rote memorizing facts makes sense is when the volume of facts is so large that it’s unlikely to be remembered in passing and the usage is so straightforward that there won’t ever be a need for deeper understanding. Vocabulary in a foreign language is a good example of where memorization works—because you need to learn tens of thousands of new words and simply knowing their translation is good enough, most of the time.

Most other situations factual knowledge is best acquired by seeking to understand it. That way the facts aren’t isolated stems, but woven together. The way to memorize these kinds of facts is to understand them via connections.

How Should You Learn More Facts?

Read more. Watch more. When you don’t understand a work, look it up in the dictionary. When you don’t understand a concept, look it up on Wikipedia.

Use orienting tasks while you’re reading and watching to make sure you’re actually thinking about the things you want to remember.

Read broadly and don’t be afraid of topics you don’t quite understand. Knowledge is exponential , so if you’re not used to reading something you’ll learn a bit less. However, as you read more about it, you can read faster and smarter.

Read deeply and don’t be afraid of books that are “above your level”. It may take quite a few lookups before you can read an entire article or chapter alone, but each time you’re building your fluency for the ideas. New subjects are like languages in that they start confusing but later become easy.

Google and Wikipedia don’t remove the burden of learning a lot of factual knowledge, they increase its importance. The people who learn from them will race ahead in knowledge and understanding, while the people who use them as an excuse not to learn won’t just be ignorant of the facts, they’ll be unable to think carefully when they need to.

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What this handout is about

This handout will provide a broad overview of gathering and using evidence. It will help you decide what counts as evidence, put evidence to work in your writing, and determine whether you have enough evidence. It will also offer links to additional resources.

Introduction

Many papers that you write in college will require you to make an argument ; this means that you must take a position on the subject you are discussing and support that position with evidence. It’s important that you use the right kind of evidence, that you use it effectively, and that you have an appropriate amount of it. If, for example, your philosophy professor didn’t like it that you used a survey of public opinion as your primary evidence in your ethics paper, you need to find out more about what philosophers count as good evidence. If your instructor has told you that you need more analysis, suggested that you’re “just listing” points or giving a “laundry list,” or asked you how certain points are related to your argument, it may mean that you can do more to fully incorporate your evidence into your argument. Comments like “for example?,” “proof?,” “go deeper,” or “expand” in the margins of your graded paper suggest that you may need more evidence. Let’s take a look at each of these issues—understanding what counts as evidence, using evidence in your argument, and deciding whether you need more evidence.

What counts as evidence?

Before you begin gathering information for possible use as evidence in your argument, you need to be sure that you understand the purpose of your assignment. If you are working on a project for a class, look carefully at the assignment prompt. It may give you clues about what sorts of evidence you will need. Does the instructor mention any particular books you should use in writing your paper or the names of any authors who have written about your topic? How long should your paper be (longer works may require more, or more varied, evidence)? What themes or topics come up in the text of the prompt? Our handout on understanding writing assignments can help you interpret your assignment. It’s also a good idea to think over what has been said about the assignment in class and to talk with your instructor if you need clarification or guidance.

What matters to instructors?

Instructors in different academic fields expect different kinds of arguments and evidence—your chemistry paper might include graphs, charts, statistics, and other quantitative data as evidence, whereas your English paper might include passages from a novel, examples of recurring symbols, or discussions of characterization in the novel. Consider what kinds of sources and evidence you have seen in course readings and lectures. You may wish to see whether the Writing Center has a handout regarding the specific academic field you’re working in—for example, literature , sociology , or history .

What are primary and secondary sources?

A note on terminology: many researchers distinguish between primary and secondary sources of evidence (in this case, “primary” means “first” or “original,” not “most important”). Primary sources include original documents, photographs, interviews, and so forth. Secondary sources present information that has already been processed or interpreted by someone else. For example, if you are writing a paper about the movie “The Matrix,” the movie itself, an interview with the director, and production photos could serve as primary sources of evidence. A movie review from a magazine or a collection of essays about the film would be secondary sources. Depending on the context, the same item could be either a primary or a secondary source: if I am writing about people’s relationships with animals, a collection of stories about animals might be a secondary source; if I am writing about how editors gather diverse stories into collections, the same book might now function as a primary source.

Where can I find evidence?

Here are some examples of sources of information and tips about how to use them in gathering evidence. Ask your instructor if you aren’t sure whether a certain source would be appropriate for your paper.

Print and electronic sources

Books, journals, websites, newspapers, magazines, and documentary films are some of the most common sources of evidence for academic writing. Our handout on evaluating print sources will help you choose your print sources wisely, and the library has a tutorial on evaluating both print sources and websites. A librarian can help you find sources that are appropriate for the type of assignment you are completing. Just visit the reference desk at Davis or the Undergraduate Library or chat with a librarian online (the library’s IM screen name is undergradref).

Observation

Sometimes you can directly observe the thing you are interested in, by watching, listening to, touching, tasting, or smelling it. For example, if you were asked to write about Mozart’s music, you could listen to it; if your topic was how businesses attract traffic, you might go and look at window displays at the mall.

An interview is a good way to collect information that you can’t find through any other type of research. An interview can provide an expert’s opinion, biographical or first-hand experiences, and suggestions for further research.

Surveys allow you to find out some of what a group of people thinks about a topic. Designing an effective survey and interpreting the data you get can be challenging, so it’s a good idea to check with your instructor before creating or administering a survey.

Experiments

Experimental data serve as the primary form of scientific evidence. For scientific experiments, you should follow the specific guidelines of the discipline you are studying. For writing in other fields, more informal experiments might be acceptable as evidence. For example, if you want to prove that food choices in a cafeteria are affected by gender norms, you might ask classmates to undermine those norms on purpose and observe how others react. What would happen if a football player were eating dinner with his teammates and he brought a small salad and diet drink to the table, all the while murmuring about his waistline and wondering how many fat grams the salad dressing contained?

Personal experience

Using your own experiences can be a powerful way to appeal to your readers. You should, however, use personal experience only when it is appropriate to your topic, your writing goals, and your audience. Personal experience should not be your only form of evidence in most papers, and some disciplines frown on using personal experience at all. For example, a story about the microscope you received as a Christmas gift when you were nine years old is probably not applicable to your biology lab report.

Using evidence in an argument

Does evidence speak for itself.

Absolutely not. After you introduce evidence into your writing, you must say why and how this evidence supports your argument. In other words, you have to explain the significance of the evidence and its function in your paper. What turns a fact or piece of information into evidence is the connection it has with a larger claim or argument: evidence is always evidence for or against something, and you have to make that link clear.

As writers, we sometimes assume that our readers already know what we are talking about; we may be wary of elaborating too much because we think the point is obvious. But readers can’t read our minds: although they may be familiar with many of the ideas we are discussing, they don’t know what we are trying to do with those ideas unless we indicate it through explanations, organization, transitions, and so forth. Try to spell out the connections that you were making in your mind when you chose your evidence, decided where to place it in your paper, and drew conclusions based on it. Remember, you can always cut prose from your paper later if you decide that you are stating the obvious.

Here are some questions you can ask yourself about a particular bit of evidence:

• OK, I’ve just stated this point, but so what? Why is it interesting? Why should anyone care?
• What does this information imply?
• What are the consequences of thinking this way or looking at a problem this way?
• I’ve just described what something is like or how I see it, but why is it like that?
• I’ve just said that something happens—so how does it happen? How does it come to be the way it is?
• Why is this information important? Why does it matter?
• How is this idea related to my thesis? What connections exist between them? Does it support my thesis? If so, how does it do that?
• Can I give an example to illustrate this point?

Answering these questions may help you explain how your evidence is related to your overall argument.

How can I incorporate evidence into my paper?

There are many ways to present your evidence. Often, your evidence will be included as text in the body of your paper, as a quotation, paraphrase, or summary. Sometimes you might include graphs, charts, or tables; excerpts from an interview; or photographs or illustrations with accompanying captions.

When you quote, you are reproducing another writer’s words exactly as they appear on the page. Here are some tips to help you decide when to use quotations:

• Quote if you can’t say it any better and the author’s words are particularly brilliant, witty, edgy, distinctive, a good illustration of a point you’re making, or otherwise interesting.
• Quote if you are using a particularly authoritative source and you need the author’s expertise to back up your point.
• Quote if you are analyzing diction, tone, or a writer’s use of a specific word or phrase.
• Quote if you are taking a position that relies on the reader’s understanding exactly what another writer says about the topic.

Be sure to introduce each quotation you use, and always cite your sources. See our handout on quotations for more details on when to quote and how to format quotations.

Like all pieces of evidence, a quotation can’t speak for itself. If you end a paragraph with a quotation, that may be a sign that you have neglected to discuss the importance of the quotation in terms of your argument. It’s important to avoid “plop quotations,” that is, quotations that are just dropped into your paper without any introduction, discussion, or follow-up.

Paraphrasing

When you paraphrase, you take a specific section of a text and put it into your own words. Putting it into your own words doesn’t mean just changing or rearranging a few of the author’s words: to paraphrase well and avoid plagiarism, try setting your source aside and restating the sentence or paragraph you have just read, as though you were describing it to another person. Paraphrasing is different than summary because a paraphrase focuses on a particular, fairly short bit of text (like a phrase, sentence, or paragraph). You’ll need to indicate when you are paraphrasing someone else’s text by citing your source correctly, just as you would with a quotation.

When might you want to paraphrase?

• Paraphrase when you want to introduce a writer’s position, but their original words aren’t special enough to quote.
• Paraphrase when you are supporting a particular point and need to draw on a certain place in a text that supports your point—for example, when one paragraph in a source is especially relevant.
• Paraphrase when you want to present a writer’s view on a topic that differs from your position or that of another writer; you can then refute writer’s specific points in your own words after you paraphrase.
• Paraphrase when you want to comment on a particular example that another writer uses.
• Paraphrase when you need to present information that’s unlikely to be questioned.

When you summarize, you are offering an overview of an entire text, or at least a lengthy section of a text. Summary is useful when you are providing background information, grounding your own argument, or mentioning a source as a counter-argument. A summary is less nuanced than paraphrased material. It can be the most effective way to incorporate a large number of sources when you don’t have a lot of space. When you are summarizing someone else’s argument or ideas, be sure this is clear to the reader and cite your source appropriately.

Statistics, data, charts, graphs, photographs, illustrations

Sometimes the best evidence for your argument is a hard fact or visual representation of a fact. This type of evidence can be a solid backbone for your argument, but you still need to create context for your reader and draw the connections you want them to make. Remember that statistics, data, charts, graph, photographs, and illustrations are all open to interpretation. Guide the reader through the interpretation process. Again, always, cite the origin of your evidence if you didn’t produce the material you are using yourself.

Do I need more evidence?

Let’s say that you’ve identified some appropriate sources, found some evidence, explained to the reader how it fits into your overall argument, incorporated it into your draft effectively, and cited your sources. How do you tell whether you’ve got enough evidence and whether it’s working well in the service of a strong argument or analysis? Here are some techniques you can use to review your draft and assess your use of evidence.

Make a reverse outline

A reverse outline is a great technique for helping you see how each paragraph contributes to proving your thesis. When you make a reverse outline, you record the main ideas in each paragraph in a shorter (outline-like) form so that you can see at a glance what is in your paper. The reverse outline is helpful in at least three ways. First, it lets you see where you have dealt with too many topics in one paragraph (in general, you should have one main idea per paragraph). Second, the reverse outline can help you see where you need more evidence to prove your point or more analysis of that evidence. Third, the reverse outline can help you write your topic sentences: once you have decided what you want each paragraph to be about, you can write topic sentences that explain the topics of the paragraphs and state the relationship of each topic to the overall thesis of the paper.

For tips on making a reverse outline, see our handout on organization .

Color code your paper

You will need three highlighters or colored pencils for this exercise. Use one color to highlight general assertions. These will typically be the topic sentences in your paper. Next, use another color to highlight the specific evidence you provide for each assertion (including quotations, paraphrased or summarized material, statistics, examples, and your own ideas). Lastly, use another color to highlight analysis of your evidence. Which assertions are key to your overall argument? Which ones are especially contestable? How much evidence do you have for each assertion? How much analysis? In general, you should have at least as much analysis as you do evidence, or your paper runs the risk of being more summary than argument. The more controversial an assertion is, the more evidence you may need to provide in order to persuade your reader.

Play devil’s advocate, act like a child, or doubt everything

This technique may be easiest to use with a partner. Ask your friend to take on one of the roles above, then read your paper aloud to them. After each section, pause and let your friend interrogate you. If your friend is playing devil’s advocate, they will always take the opposing viewpoint and force you to keep defending yourself. If your friend is acting like a child, they will question every sentence, even seemingly self-explanatory ones. If your friend is a doubter, they won’t believe anything you say. Justifying your position verbally or explaining yourself will force you to strengthen the evidence in your paper. If you already have enough evidence but haven’t connected it clearly enough to your main argument, explaining to your friend how the evidence is relevant or what it proves may help you to do so.

Common questions and additional resources

• I have a general topic in mind; how can I develop it so I’ll know what evidence I need? And how can I get ideas for more evidence? See our handout on brainstorming .
• Who can help me find evidence on my topic? Check out UNC Libraries .
• I’m writing for a specific purpose; how can I tell what kind of evidence my audience wants? See our handouts on audience , writing for specific disciplines , and particular writing assignments .
• How should I read materials to gather evidence? See our handout on reading to write .
• How can I make a good argument? Check out our handouts on argument and thesis statements .
• How do I tell if my paragraphs and my paper are well-organized? Review our handouts on paragraph development , transitions , and reorganizing drafts .
• How do I quote my sources and incorporate those quotes into my text? Our handouts on quotations and avoiding plagiarism offer useful tips.
• How do I cite my evidence? See the UNC Libraries citation tutorial .
• I think that I’m giving evidence, but my instructor says I’m using too much summary. How can I tell? Check out our handout on using summary wisely.
• I want to use personal experience as evidence, but can I say “I”? We have a handout on when to use “I.”

Works consulted

We consulted these works while writing this handout. This is not a comprehensive list of resources on the handout’s topic, and we encourage you to do your own research to find additional publications. Please do not use this list as a model for the format of your own reference list, as it may not match the citation style you are using. For guidance on formatting citations, please see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial . We revise these tips periodically and welcome feedback.

Lunsford, Andrea A., and John J. Ruszkiewicz. 2016. Everything’s an Argument , 7th ed. Boston: Bedford/St Martin’s.

Miller, Richard E., and Kurt Spellmeyer. 2016. The New Humanities Reader , 5th ed. Boston: Cengage.

University of Maryland. 2019. “Research Using Primary Sources.” Research Guides. Last updated October 28, 2019. https://lib.guides.umd.edu/researchusingprimarysources .

You may reproduce it for non-commercial use if you use the entire handout and attribute the source: The Writing Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

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Essays | Definition, Types, Examples, & Facts About Them

Essays, a cornerstone of written expression, have long been revered for their ability to encapsulate a writer’s viewpoint, unleash persuasive arguments, and invite readers into a captivating realm of thought. As versatile as they are profound, essays hold the power to inform, persuade, and entertain, making them an invaluable medium of communication. In this illuminating exploration, we embark on a journey that unravels the essence of the essay, dissecting its multifaceted nature, exploring its diverse types, and uncovering the intricate tapestry of this popular form of written expression . Join us as we traverse the labyrinth of ideas, guided by the powerful words that shape our understanding and transform mere thoughts into transformative narratives.

What is an essay?

An essay, a literary composition that serves as a medium for expressing a writer’s thoughts, ideas, or arguments on a particular subject, holds a prominent position in the realm of written expression. Within the confines of its structure, the essay grants authors the opportunity to present their unique perspective and offer insightful analysis on topics of interest. Covering a wide range of subjects, including literature, history, science, philosophy, and more, essays embody the essence of communication, bridging the gap between writers and readers. Through the written word , essays become vehicles for conveying knowledge and sharing personal opinions, fostering an exchange of ideas that enriches our understanding of the world.

Types of essays

• Essays come in various forms, each with its own unique characteristics and purposes. Some of the common types of essays include argumentative essays, expository essays, narrative essays, and descriptive essays. Let’s explore each type in detail.
• Argumentative essays require the writer to present a strong argument and support it with credible evidence. The goal is to convince the reader to adopt a specific viewpoint or take a particular course of action.
• Expository essays aim to explain or describe a topic in a clear and concise manner. They provide information, facts, and analysis without expressing personal opinions.
• Narrative essays tell a story, often based on personal experiences or events. They engage the reader through vivid storytelling and evoke emotions while conveying a central message .
• Descriptive essays focus on painting a detailed picture of a person, place, object, or event. They use sensory language and vivid descriptions to create a vivid and engaging experience for the reader.
• In addition to these essay types, there are various other aspects related to writing and the writing process. Writing prompts can provide inspiration and ideas for writers who may be stuck or seeking new avenues to explore. They serve as a starting point to unleash creativity and engage in free writing exercises.
• Writing a book is a daunting yet rewarding endeavor for aspiring authors. It requires dedication, planning, and a clear understanding of the writing process. Writing prompts can also be beneficial in generating ideas for a book and overcoming writer’s block.
• Essay writing involves following a structured process that includes brainstorming, outlining, drafting, revising, and editing. It is important to develop strong writing skills to effectively communicate ideas and engage readers.
• Creative writing is an outlet for self-expression, allowing writers to explore their imagination and craft compelling stories. Writing prompts specifically designed for creative writing can spark inspiration and push writers to think outside the box.
• Content writing is a skill required in various professional settings, such as blogging, website content creation, and marketing. Writers in this field must have a strong command of language and the ability to adapt their writing style to different purposes and target audiences.
• There are numerous writing apps and websites available to assist writers in their creative process, providing tools for organization, brainstorming, and editing. These resources can enhance productivity and streamline the writing workflow.
• Whether writing fiction or nonfiction, short stories or novels, writers need to develop their skills and find their unique voice. Practice, dedication, and feedback from writing communities can contribute to the growth and improvement of a writer. Therefore, writing encompasses a vast array of forms and purposes. From argumentative and expository essays to narrative and descriptive essays, each type serves a distinct function. Writing prompts, the writing process, and various resources support writers in their creative endeavors. So, grab a pen, embrace your imagination, and let your words flow freely as you embark on your writing journey .

Examples of essays

To better comprehend the diverse facets of writing, let’s delve into a plethora of writing forms:

• Argumentative essay: “Should the Death Penalty Be Abolished?” This thought-provoking and contentious essay artfully presents compelling arguments concerning the ethical, legal, and societal implications surrounding the abolishment of the death penalty. By meticulously examining both sides of the debate, it invites readers to engage in critical thinking and fosters a profound discussion on this highly contested topic.
• Expository essay: “The History of the Essay” Embarking on a captivating journey through time, this expository essay meticulously traces the origins and evolution of the essay as a distinct literary form. It chronicles the contributions of influential essayists throughout the ages, delving into their profound impact on the development and transformation of this genre. By providing a comprehensive historical overview, this essay enlightens readers about the captivating evolution of essay writing.
• Narrative essay: “My First Day of School” With heartfelt sincerity, this deeply personal narrative essay artfully captures the writer’s vivid experiences and raw emotions during their momentous first day of school. It immerses readers in a poignant recollection of the writer’s excitement, nervousness, and eager anticipation, effortlessly conveying the universal significance of this memorable milestone in one’s life.
• Descriptive essay: “The Smell of Rain” Through skillful and evocative language, this descriptive essay skillfully harnesses the power of words to paint a vivid sensory experience for the reader. By masterfully portraying the unique aroma and ambiance that accompanies rainfall, it transports readers into a captivating scene, igniting their senses and eliciting a cascade of memories and emotions associated with the rain’s intoxicating scent.

Facts about essays

Here are some essential facts to know about essays:

• Essays, in their diverse forms, serve as a profound means of conveying viewpoints, capturing thoughts, and presenting compelling arguments on a myriad of topics. They offer a rich and expansive platform for individuals to express their perspectives, ideas, and emotions, engaging readers in an enlightening journey of exploration and discourse.
• When it comes to essays, their purpose extends beyond a mere conveyance of information. They possess the power to inform, persuade, and entertain, each essay crafted with a specific intention in mind. The chosen purpose guides the tone, style, and structure of the essay, shaping its form and impact on the reader.
• As we embark on an in-depth exploration of the art of essay writing, it becomes evident that essays are not limited to a singular template. They come in various shapes and sizes, each tailored to suit the specific needs and objectives of the author. From scholarly dissertations to personal reflections, from investigative reports to creative narratives, essays manifest in a multitude of forms, transcending the boundaries of conventional communication.
• Delving into the structure of an essay, we find a well-established framework that encompasses three fundamental components: the introduction, body, and conclusion. In the introductory section, a carefully crafted thesis statement emerges, serving as the cornerstone of the essay. This concise yet powerful statement encapsulates the core idea that will be expounded upon and explored throughout the essay, laying the groundwork for the ensuing discourse.
• Moving onward to the body of the essay, a wealth of supporting evidence and analysis takes center stage. This is where the author’s expertise, research, and critical thinking skills converge, unveiling a tapestry of compelling arguments, vivid examples, and thought-provoking insights. Each paragraph within the body delves into a specific aspect, presenting a coherent progression of ideas that reinforce the central thesis statement. By employing a variety of rhetorical devices, such as logical reasoning, persuasive appeals, and meticulous analysis, the author endeavors to captivate the reader’s attention and elicit a profound intellectual engagement.
• Finally, the essay culminates in its conclusion, a pivotal segment that synthesizes the main ideas and reaffirms the thesis statement. Here, the author skillfull y weaves together the threads of their arguments, providing a concise summary of the key points and leaving a lasting impression on the reader’s mind. The conclusion serves as the ultimate opportunity for the author to leave a thought-provoking parting note, leaving the reader with a sense of closure and a lingering contemplation of the essay’s significance.
• Now, as we embark on an exploration of various types of essays, we are presented with a myriad of opportunities to delve deeper into the art of expression and persuasion. Whether it is the argumentative essay, where the author passionately presents their stance on a controversial topic, skillfully navigating the intricate web of ethical, legal, and societal considerations, or the expository essay, where the author assumes the role of a knowledgeable guide, leading the reader through the rich tapestry of history and evolution of the essay as a literary form, each type offers a distinct flavor of engagement and intellectual stimulation.
• The narrative essay, with its captivating storytelling prowess, invites the reader into the intimate realm of personal experiences. Through vivid descriptions and heartfelt reflections, the writer transports the reader to pivotal moments, such as the exhilarating first day of school, where emotions run high and new beginnings unfold. These narratives weave together a tapestry of emotions, painting a vivid picture that resonates with readers on a deeply personal level.
• Meanwhile, the descriptive essay unleashes the power of sensory language, enveloping the reader in a sensory experience that transcends the boundaries of mere words. One such example is the evocative portrayal of the unique aroma and ethereal atmosphere that accompanies rainfall. Through skillful word choice and vibrant imagery , the writer recreates the essence of the rain’s scent, transporting the reader to a world where memories are revived and emotions are rekindled.
• As we conclude this exploration of essays, we are reminded of their immense potential to enlighten, provoke thought, and stir emotions. They serve as a testament to the power of language, allowing us to connect, communicate, and understand one another on a deeper level. So, whether it is the quest for knowledge, the pursuit of change, or the simple pleasure of immersing oneself in a captivating narrative, essays stand as timeless vehicles for human expression, shaping our collective understanding and fostering a world enriched by the power of words.

Essays offer a diverse range of literary expression, enabling writers to convey their thoughts and ideas effectively. From the persuasive arguments of argumentative essays to the informative nature of expository essays, the captivating narratives of narrative essays, and the vivid descriptions of descriptive essays, each genre brings its own distinct qualities and purposes. As writers, we have the power to choose the essay form that best suits our intentions , engaging readers and leaving a lasting impact. So, let your creativity flow and explore the world of essays, embracing the richness of each genre’s unique storytelling techniques and captivating readers with your words.

Also, essays are a versatile form of writing that can be used for a variety of purposes. By understanding the different types of essays and how to write them effectively, you can improve your writing skills and communicate your ideas more effectively. Remember to choose a topic of interest, conduct thorough research, organize your thoughts, and craft a clear and concise introduction. Support your arguments with evidence and personal experience, and conclude your essay by summarizing the main points and restating the thesis. Finally, proofread your work meticulously to ensure clarity and coherence. Embrace the power of essays as a medium to express your thoughts, inform others, and engage in meaningful discussions.

If you find yourself in need of assistance with your essays or seeking expert guidance, consider bringing your essays to GradeSmiths . With their team of experienced writers and editors, GradeSmiths can provide valuable feedback, editing services, and guidance to help you refine your essays to their fullest potential. Whether you need help with structure, grammar, or overall content, GradeSmiths can be a valuable resource on your writing journey .

So, as you embark on your essay-writing endeavors, remember the power and impact of this form of expression. Embrace the opportunity to share your ideas, educate others, and inspire thoughtful discussions. And when you require extra support, don’t hesitate to seek assistance from professionals like GradeSmiths. With their expertise, your essays can truly shine and make a lasting impression.

Happy writing and best of luck with your future essays!

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13.7 Cosmos & Culture

What makes science science.

Tania Lombrozo

In a post published last week, Adam Frank argued for the importance of public facts, and of science as a method for ascertaining them.

He emphasized the role of agreement in establishing public facts, and verifiable evidence as the crucial ingredient that makes agreement possible.

Today, I want to consider two additional aspects of science as a method for ascertaining public facts — that is, the facts that we should all accept together. The first is that scientific conclusions can change. And the second is that scientific methods can change.

Far from undercutting the value of public facts, understanding how and why these changes occur reveals why science is our best bet for getting the facts right.

First, the body of scientific knowledge is continually evolving. Scientists don't simply add more facts to our scientific repository; they question new evidence as it comes in, and they repeatedly reexamine prior conclusions. That means that the body of scientific knowledge isn't just growing, it's also changing.

At first glance, this change can be unsettling. How can we trust science, if scientific conclusions are continually subject to change ?

The key is that scientific conclusions don't change on a whim. They change in response to new evidence, new analyses and new arguments — the sorts of things we can publicly agree (or disagree) about, that we can evaluate together. And scientific conclusions are almost always based on induction, not deduction. That is, science involves drawing inferences from premises to conclusion, where the premises can affect the probability of the conclusions but don't establish them with certainty.

When you put these pieces together, the alternative to an evolving body of scientific knowledge is a non-starter. To embrace a static body of scientific knowledge is to reject the potential relevance of new information. It's a commitment to the idea that a conclusion based on all the evidence available is no better than a conclusion based on the subset of evidence we happened to obtain first. If a changing body of scientific knowledge is unsettling, this alternative is untenable.

A second feature of science is that scientific methods are continually evolving. Many of us learned "the" scientific method in grade school, a step-by-step procedure for doing science. But this recipe-book approach to science is oversimplified and misleading . Scientists employ a variety of methods, and these methods are refined as we learn more. New technologies, like telescopes or brain imaging devices, allow us to ask new questions in new ways. But equally important, strategies for analyzing data and drawing conclusions change as well. Statistical methods improve, as do experimental designs. The randomized controlled trial is a scientific innovation; a way to draw better conclusions about cause and effect. A double-blind experiment is a scientific innovation; a way to prevent subtle psychological processes from influencing the results.

What drives this methodological innovation? And what makes the outcome a set of methods we should trust?

In an undergraduate course that I'm teaching this semester, we introduce students to an unconventional definition of science. The course, Letters & Sciences 22: Sense and Sensibility and Science, comes from an interdisciplinary collaboration between a philosopher (John Campbell), a social psychologist (Robert MacCoun), a Nobel-prize-winning physicist (Saul Perlmutter), and a cognitive scientist (me).

On the first day of class, Prof. Perlmutter defines science as a collection of heuristic tricks that are constantly being invented to side-step our mental weaknesses and play to our strengths. On this view, science isn't a recipe, it's a warning. The warning is this: We are fallible.

But recognizing our fallibility, we can do better. Once we learn that placebo effects can occur, we design drug trials to compare drugs against placebos. Once we learn that repeated statistical significance testing can inflate the probability of a false positive, we build in corrective measures. And we shouldn't wait for these lessons to fortuitously come along; we should vigorously seek them out. A common theme in the course, concludes Perlmutter, is that science is about actively hunting for where we are wrong, for where we are fooling ourselves.

Scientific methods thus evolve alongside scientific conclusions, and the engine that drives this change is remarkably simple. In an essay published earlier this month at Edge.org , I argue that science is powerful because it involves the systematic evaluation of alternatives. To determine which evidence is worth pursuing, we consider which alternatives are plausible, and we seek out evidence that will discriminate between them. As we encounter new evidence or new arguments, we evaluate the possibility that alternative conclusions are now better supported, and alternative methods better guides to the truth.

Scientific thinking isn't just a tool for working scientists; it's an approach to getting the facts right by entertaining all the ways we might get the facts wrong. Only when viable alternatives have been eliminated can we be pretty confident we've got something right.

So let me end with a plea. The plea isn't for people to accept any particular scientific consensus, or any particular public fact. It's a plea for people to embrace the value of considering alternative possibilities, and evaluating those possibilities against the best evidence and arguments at our disposal. And it's a plea for us to do so together, with the kinds of evidence we can verify and share, and the kinds of arguments we can subject to public scrutiny. And if you're not convinced, please consider the alternatives.

Tania Lombrozo is a psychology professor at the University of California, Berkeley. She writes about psychology, cognitive science and philosophy, with occasional forays into parenting and veganism. You can keep up with more of what she is thinking on Twitter: @TaniaLombrozo

• scientific knowledge
• public facts
• scientific methods
• alternatives

Frequently asked questions

Why is structure important in an essay.

An essay isn’t just a loose collection of facts and ideas. Instead, it should be centered on an overarching argument (summarized in your thesis statement ) that every part of the essay relates to.

The way you structure your essay is crucial to presenting your argument coherently. A well-structured essay helps your reader follow the logic of your ideas and understand your overall point.

Frequently asked questions: Writing an essay

For a stronger conclusion paragraph, avoid including:

• Important evidence or analysis that wasn’t mentioned in the main body
• Generic concluding phrases (e.g. “In conclusion…”)
• Weak statements that undermine your argument (e.g. “There are good points on both sides of this issue.”)

Your conclusion should leave the reader with a strong, decisive impression of your work.

Your essay’s conclusion should contain:

• A rephrased version of your overall thesis
• A brief review of the key points you made in the main body
• An indication of why your argument matters

The conclusion may also reflect on the broader implications of your argument, showing how your ideas could applied to other contexts or debates.

The conclusion paragraph of an essay is usually shorter than the introduction . As a rule, it shouldn’t take up more than 10–15% of the text.

An essay is a focused piece of writing that explains, argues, describes, or narrates.

In high school, you may have to write many different types of essays to develop your writing skills.

Academic essays at college level are usually argumentative : you develop a clear thesis about your topic and make a case for your position using evidence, analysis and interpretation.

The “hook” is the first sentence of your essay introduction . It should lead the reader into your essay, giving a sense of why it’s interesting.

To write a good hook, avoid overly broad statements or long, dense sentences. Try to start with something clear, concise and catchy that will spark your reader’s curiosity.

Your essay introduction should include three main things, in this order:

• An opening hook to catch the reader’s attention.
• Relevant background information that the reader needs to know.
• A thesis statement that presents your main point or argument.

The length of each part depends on the length and complexity of your essay .

Let’s say you’re writing a five-paragraph  essay about the environmental impacts of dietary choices. Here are three examples of topic sentences you could use for each of the three body paragraphs :

• Research has shown that the meat industry has severe environmental impacts.
• However, many plant-based foods are also produced in environmentally damaging ways.
• It’s important to consider not only what type of diet we eat, but where our food comes from and how it is produced.

Each of these sentences expresses one main idea – by listing them in order, we can see the overall structure of the essay at a glance. Each paragraph will expand on the topic sentence with relevant detail, evidence, and arguments.

The topic sentence usually comes at the very start of the paragraph .

However, sometimes you might start with a transition sentence to summarize what was discussed in previous paragraphs, followed by the topic sentence that expresses the focus of the current paragraph.

Topic sentences help keep your writing focused and guide the reader through your argument.

In an essay or paper , each paragraph should focus on a single idea. By stating the main idea in the topic sentence, you clarify what the paragraph is about for both yourself and your reader.

A topic sentence is a sentence that expresses the main point of a paragraph . Everything else in the paragraph should relate to the topic sentence.

The thesis statement is essential in any academic essay or research paper for two main reasons:

• It gives your writing direction and focus.
• It gives the reader a concise summary of your main point.

Without a clear thesis statement, an essay can end up rambling and unfocused, leaving your reader unsure of exactly what you want to say.

The thesis statement should be placed at the end of your essay introduction .

Follow these four steps to come up with a thesis statement :

• Ask a question about your topic .
• Write your initial answer.
• Develop your answer by including reasons.
• Refine your answer, adding more detail and nuance.

A thesis statement is a sentence that sums up the central point of your paper or essay . Everything else you write should relate to this key idea.

The structure of an essay is divided into an introduction that presents your topic and thesis statement , a body containing your in-depth analysis and arguments, and a conclusion wrapping up your ideas.

The structure of the body is flexible, but you should always spend some time thinking about how you can organize your essay to best serve your ideas.

The vast majority of essays written at university are some sort of argumentative essay . Almost all academic writing involves building up an argument, though other types of essay might be assigned in composition classes.

Essays can present arguments about all kinds of different topics. For example:

• In a literary analysis essay, you might make an argument for a specific interpretation of a text
• In a history essay, you might present an argument for the importance of a particular event
• In a politics essay, you might argue for the validity of a certain political theory

At high school and in composition classes at university, you’ll often be told to write a specific type of essay , but you might also just be given prompts.

Look for keywords in these prompts that suggest a certain approach: The word “explain” suggests you should write an expository essay , while the word “describe” implies a descriptive essay . An argumentative essay might be prompted with the word “assess” or “argue.”

In rhetorical analysis , a claim is something the author wants the audience to believe. A support is the evidence or appeal they use to convince the reader to believe the claim. A warrant is the (often implicit) assumption that links the support with the claim.

Logos appeals to the audience’s reason, building up logical arguments . Ethos appeals to the speaker’s status or authority, making the audience more likely to trust them. Pathos appeals to the emotions, trying to make the audience feel angry or sympathetic, for example.

Collectively, these three appeals are sometimes called the rhetorical triangle . They are central to rhetorical analysis , though a piece of rhetoric might not necessarily use all of them.

The term “text” in a rhetorical analysis essay refers to whatever object you’re analyzing. It’s frequently a piece of writing or a speech, but it doesn’t have to be. For example, you could also treat an advertisement or political cartoon as a text.

The goal of a rhetorical analysis is to explain the effect a piece of writing or oratory has on its audience, how successful it is, and the devices and appeals it uses to achieve its goals.

Unlike a standard argumentative essay , it’s less about taking a position on the arguments presented, and more about exploring how they are constructed.

You should try to follow your outline as you write your essay . However, if your ideas change or it becomes clear that your structure could be better, it’s okay to depart from your essay outline . Just make sure you know why you’re doing so.

If you have to hand in your essay outline , you may be given specific guidelines stating whether you have to use full sentences. If you’re not sure, ask your supervisor.

When writing an essay outline for yourself, the choice is yours. Some students find it helpful to write out their ideas in full sentences, while others prefer to summarize them in short phrases.

You will sometimes be asked to hand in an essay outline before you start writing your essay . Your supervisor wants to see that you have a clear idea of your structure so that writing will go smoothly.

Even when you do not have to hand it in, writing an essay outline is an important part of the writing process . It’s a good idea to write one (as informally as you like) to clarify your structure for yourself whenever you are working on an essay.

Comparisons in essays are generally structured in one of two ways:

• The alternating method, where you compare your subjects side by side according to one specific aspect at a time.
• The block method, where you cover each subject separately in its entirety.

It’s also possible to combine both methods, for example by writing a full paragraph on each of your topics and then a final paragraph contrasting the two according to a specific metric.

Your subjects might be very different or quite similar, but it’s important that there be meaningful grounds for comparison . You can probably describe many differences between a cat and a bicycle, but there isn’t really any connection between them to justify the comparison.

You’ll have to write a thesis statement explaining the central point you want to make in your essay , so be sure to know in advance what connects your subjects and makes them worth comparing.

Some essay prompts include the keywords “compare” and/or “contrast.” In these cases, an essay structured around comparing and contrasting is the appropriate response.

Comparing and contrasting is also a useful approach in all kinds of academic writing : You might compare different studies in a literature review , weigh up different arguments in an argumentative essay , or consider different theoretical approaches in a theoretical framework .

The key difference is that a narrative essay is designed to tell a complete story, while a descriptive essay is meant to convey an intense description of a particular place, object, or concept.

Narrative and descriptive essays both allow you to write more personally and creatively than other kinds of essays , and similar writing skills can apply to both.

If you’re not given a specific prompt for your descriptive essay , think about places and objects you know well, that you can think of interesting ways to describe, or that have strong personal significance for you.

The best kind of object for a descriptive essay is one specific enough that you can describe its particular features in detail—don’t choose something too vague or general.

If you’re not given much guidance on what your narrative essay should be about, consider the context and scope of the assignment. What kind of story is relevant, interesting, and possible to tell within the word count?

The best kind of story for a narrative essay is one you can use to reflect on a particular theme or lesson, or that takes a surprising turn somewhere along the way.

Don’t worry too much if your topic seems unoriginal. The point of a narrative essay is how you tell the story and the point you make with it, not the subject of the story itself.

Narrative essays are usually assigned as writing exercises at high school or in university composition classes. They may also form part of a university application.

When you are prompted to tell a story about your own life or experiences, a narrative essay is usually the right response.

The majority of the essays written at university are some sort of argumentative essay . Unless otherwise specified, you can assume that the goal of any essay you’re asked to write is argumentative: To convince the reader of your position using evidence and reasoning.

In composition classes you might be given assignments that specifically test your ability to write an argumentative essay. Look out for prompts including instructions like “argue,” “assess,” or “discuss” to see if this is the goal.

At college level, you must properly cite your sources in all essays , research papers , and other academic texts (except exams and in-class exercises).

Add a citation whenever you quote , paraphrase , or summarize information or ideas from a source. You should also give full source details in a bibliography or reference list at the end of your text.

The exact format of your citations depends on which citation style you are instructed to use. The most common styles are APA , MLA , and Chicago .

An argumentative essay tends to be a longer essay involving independent research, and aims to make an original argument about a topic. Its thesis statement makes a contentious claim that must be supported in an objective, evidence-based way.

An expository essay also aims to be objective, but it doesn’t have to make an original argument. Rather, it aims to explain something (e.g., a process or idea) in a clear, concise way. Expository essays are often shorter assignments and rely less on research.

An expository essay is a common assignment in high-school and university composition classes. It might be assigned as coursework, in class, or as part of an exam.

Sometimes you might not be told explicitly to write an expository essay. Look out for prompts containing keywords like “explain” and “define.” An expository essay is usually the right response to these prompts.

An expository essay is a broad form that varies in length according to the scope of the assignment.

Expository essays are often assigned as a writing exercise or as part of an exam, in which case a five-paragraph essay of around 800 words may be appropriate.

You’ll usually be given guidelines regarding length; if you’re not sure, ask.

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