research study problem

45 Research Problem Examples & Inspiration

Chris Drew (PhD)

Dr. Chris Drew is the founder of the Helpful Professor. He holds a PhD in education and has published over 20 articles in scholarly journals. He is the former editor of the Journal of Learning Development in Higher Education. [Image Descriptor: Photo of Chris]

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A research problem is an issue of concern that is the catalyst for your research. It demonstrates why the research problem needs to take place in the first place.

Generally, you will write your research problem as a clear, concise, and focused statement that identifies an issue or gap in current knowledge that requires investigation.

The problem will likely also guide the direction and purpose of a study. Depending on the problem, you will identify a suitable methodology that will help address the problem and bring solutions to light.

Research Problem Examples

In the following examples, I’ll present some problems worth addressing, and some suggested theoretical frameworks and research methodologies that might fit with the study. Note, however, that these aren’t the only ways to approach the problems. Keep an open mind and consult with your dissertation supervisor!

Psychology Problems

1. Social Media and Self-Esteem: “How does prolonged exposure to social media platforms influence the self-esteem of adolescents?”

• Theoretical Framework : Social Comparison Theory
• Methodology : Longitudinal study tracking adolescents’ social media usage and self-esteem measures over time, combined with qualitative interviews.

2. Sleep and Cognitive Performance: “How does sleep quality and duration impact cognitive performance in adults?”

• Theoretical Framework : Cognitive Psychology
• Methodology : Experimental design with controlled sleep conditions, followed by cognitive tests. Participant sleep patterns can also be monitored using actigraphy.

3. Childhood Trauma and Adult Relationships: “How does unresolved childhood trauma influence attachment styles and relationship dynamics in adulthood?

• Theoretical Framework : Attachment Theory
• Methodology : Mixed methods, combining quantitative measures of attachment styles with qualitative in-depth interviews exploring past trauma and current relationship dynamics.

4. Mindfulness and Stress Reduction: “How effective is mindfulness meditation in reducing perceived stress and physiological markers of stress in working professionals?”

• Theoretical Framework : Humanist Psychology
• Methodology : Randomized controlled trial comparing a group practicing mindfulness meditation to a control group, measuring both self-reported stress and physiological markers (e.g., cortisol levels).

5. Implicit Bias and Decision Making: “To what extent do implicit biases influence decision-making processes in hiring practices?

• Theoretical Framework : Cognitive Dissonance Theory
• Methodology : Experimental design using Implicit Association Tests (IAT) to measure implicit biases, followed by simulated hiring tasks to observe decision-making behaviors.

6. Emotional Regulation and Academic Performance: “How does the ability to regulate emotions impact academic performance in college students?”

• Theoretical Framework : Cognitive Theory of Emotion
• Methodology : Quantitative surveys measuring emotional regulation strategies, combined with academic performance metrics (e.g., GPA).

7. Nature Exposure and Mental Well-being: “Does regular exposure to natural environments improve mental well-being and reduce symptoms of anxiety and depression?”

• Theoretical Framework : Biophilia Hypothesis
• Methodology : Longitudinal study comparing mental health measures of individuals with regular nature exposure to those without, possibly using ecological momentary assessment for real-time data collection.

8. Video Games and Cognitive Skills: “How do action video games influence cognitive skills such as attention, spatial reasoning, and problem-solving?”

• Theoretical Framework : Cognitive Load Theory
• Methodology : Experimental design with pre- and post-tests, comparing cognitive skills of participants before and after a period of action video game play.

9. Parenting Styles and Child Resilience: “How do different parenting styles influence the development of resilience in children facing adversities?”

• Theoretical Framework : Baumrind’s Parenting Styles Inventory
• Methodology : Mixed methods, combining quantitative measures of resilience and parenting styles with qualitative interviews exploring children’s experiences and perceptions.

10. Memory and Aging: “How does the aging process impact episodic memory , and what strategies can mitigate age-related memory decline?

• Theoretical Framework : Information Processing Theory
• Methodology : Cross-sectional study comparing episodic memory performance across different age groups, combined with interventions like memory training or mnemonic strategies to assess potential improvements.

Education Problems

11. Equity and Access : “How do socioeconomic factors influence students’ access to quality education, and what interventions can bridge the gap?

• Theoretical Framework : Critical Pedagogy
• Methodology : Mixed methods, combining quantitative data on student outcomes with qualitative interviews and focus groups with students, parents, and educators.

12. Digital Divide : How does the lack of access to technology and the internet affect remote learning outcomes, and how can this divide be addressed?

• Theoretical Framework : Social Construction of Technology Theory
• Methodology : Survey research to gather data on access to technology, followed by case studies in selected areas.

13. Teacher Efficacy : “What factors contribute to teacher self-efficacy, and how does it impact student achievement?”

• Theoretical Framework : Bandura’s Self-Efficacy Theory
• Methodology : Quantitative surveys to measure teacher self-efficacy, combined with qualitative interviews to explore factors affecting it.

14. Curriculum Relevance : “How can curricula be made more relevant to diverse student populations, incorporating cultural and local contexts?”

• Theoretical Framework : Sociocultural Theory
• Methodology : Content analysis of curricula, combined with focus groups with students and teachers.

15. Special Education : “What are the most effective instructional strategies for students with specific learning disabilities?

• Theoretical Framework : Social Learning Theory
• Methodology : Experimental design comparing different instructional strategies, with pre- and post-tests to measure student achievement.

16. Dropout Rates : “What factors contribute to high school dropout rates, and what interventions can help retain students?”

• Methodology : Longitudinal study tracking students over time, combined with interviews with dropouts.

17. Bilingual Education : “How does bilingual education impact cognitive development and academic achievement?

• Methodology : Comparative study of students in bilingual vs. monolingual programs, using standardized tests and qualitative interviews.

18. Classroom Management: “What reward strategies are most effective in managing diverse classrooms and promoting a positive learning environment?

• Theoretical Framework : Behaviorism (e.g., Skinner’s Operant Conditioning)
• Methodology : Observational research in classrooms , combined with teacher interviews.

19. Standardized Testing : “How do standardized tests affect student motivation, learning, and curriculum design?”

• Theoretical Framework : Critical Theory
• Methodology : Quantitative analysis of test scores and student outcomes, combined with qualitative interviews with educators and students.

20. STEM Education : “What methods can be employed to increase interest and proficiency in STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics) fields among underrepresented student groups?”

• Theoretical Framework : Constructivist Learning Theory
• Methodology : Experimental design comparing different instructional methods, with pre- and post-tests.

21. Social-Emotional Learning : “How can social-emotional learning be effectively integrated into the curriculum, and what are its impacts on student well-being and academic outcomes?”

• Theoretical Framework : Goleman’s Emotional Intelligence Theory
• Methodology : Mixed methods, combining quantitative measures of student well-being with qualitative interviews.

22. Parental Involvement : “How does parental involvement influence student achievement, and what strategies can schools use to increase it?”

• Theoretical Framework : Reggio Emilia’s Model (Community Engagement Focus)
• Methodology : Survey research with parents and teachers, combined with case studies in selected schools.

23. Early Childhood Education : “What are the long-term impacts of quality early childhood education on academic and life outcomes?”

• Theoretical Framework : Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development
• Methodology : Longitudinal study comparing students with and without early childhood education, combined with observational research.

24. Teacher Training and Professional Development : “How can teacher training programs be improved to address the evolving needs of the 21st-century classroom?”

• Theoretical Framework : Adult Learning Theory (Andragogy)
• Methodology : Pre- and post-assessments of teacher competencies, combined with focus groups.

25. Educational Technology : “How can technology be effectively integrated into the classroom to enhance learning, and what are the potential drawbacks or challenges?”

• Theoretical Framework : Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK)
• Methodology : Experimental design comparing classrooms with and without specific technologies, combined with teacher and student interviews.

Sociology Problems

26. Urbanization and Social Ties: “How does rapid urbanization impact the strength and nature of social ties in communities?”

• Theoretical Framework : Structural Functionalism
• Methodology : Mixed methods, combining quantitative surveys on social ties with qualitative interviews in urbanizing areas.

27. Gender Roles in Modern Families: “How have traditional gender roles evolved in families with dual-income households?”

• Theoretical Framework : Gender Schema Theory
• Methodology : Qualitative interviews with dual-income families, combined with historical data analysis.

28. Social Media and Collective Behavior: “How does social media influence collective behaviors and the formation of social movements?”

• Theoretical Framework : Emergent Norm Theory
• Methodology : Content analysis of social media platforms, combined with quantitative surveys on participation in social movements.

29. Education and Social Mobility: “To what extent does access to quality education influence social mobility in socioeconomically diverse settings?”

• Methodology : Longitudinal study tracking educational access and subsequent socioeconomic status, combined with qualitative interviews.

30. Religion and Social Cohesion: “How do religious beliefs and practices contribute to social cohesion in multicultural societies?”

• Methodology : Quantitative surveys on religious beliefs and perceptions of social cohesion, combined with ethnographic studies.

31. Consumer Culture and Identity Formation: “How does consumer culture influence individual identity formation and personal values?”

• Theoretical Framework : Social Identity Theory
• Methodology : Mixed methods, combining content analysis of advertising with qualitative interviews on identity and values.

32. Migration and Cultural Assimilation: “How do migrants negotiate cultural assimilation and preservation of their original cultural identities in their host countries?”

• Theoretical Framework : Post-Structuralism
• Methodology : Qualitative interviews with migrants, combined with observational studies in multicultural communities.

33. Social Networks and Mental Health: “How do social networks, both online and offline, impact mental health and well-being?”

• Theoretical Framework : Social Network Theory
• Methodology : Quantitative surveys assessing social network characteristics and mental health metrics, combined with qualitative interviews.

34. Crime, Deviance, and Social Control: “How do societal norms and values shape definitions of crime and deviance, and how are these definitions enforced?”

• Theoretical Framework : Labeling Theory
• Methodology : Content analysis of legal documents and media, combined with ethnographic studies in diverse communities.

35. Technology and Social Interaction: “How has the proliferation of digital technology influenced face-to-face social interactions and community building?”

• Theoretical Framework : Technological Determinism
• Methodology : Mixed methods, combining quantitative surveys on technology use with qualitative observations of social interactions in various settings.

Nursing Problems

36. Patient Communication and Recovery: “How does effective nurse-patient communication influence patient recovery rates and overall satisfaction with care?”

• Methodology : Quantitative surveys assessing patient satisfaction and recovery metrics, combined with observational studies on nurse-patient interactions.

37. Stress Management in Nursing: “What are the primary sources of occupational stress for nurses, and how can they be effectively managed to prevent burnout?”

• Methodology : Mixed methods, combining quantitative measures of stress and burnout with qualitative interviews exploring personal experiences and coping mechanisms.

38. Hand Hygiene Compliance: “How effective are different interventions in improving hand hygiene compliance among nursing staff, and what are the barriers to consistent hand hygiene?”

• Methodology : Experimental design comparing hand hygiene rates before and after specific interventions, combined with focus groups to understand barriers.

39. Nurse-Patient Ratios and Patient Outcomes: “How do nurse-patient ratios impact patient outcomes, including recovery rates, complications, and hospital readmissions?”

• Methodology : Quantitative study analyzing patient outcomes in relation to staffing levels, possibly using retrospective chart reviews.

40. Continuing Education and Clinical Competence: “How does regular continuing education influence clinical competence and confidence among nurses?”

• Methodology : Longitudinal study tracking nurses’ clinical skills and confidence over time as they engage in continuing education, combined with patient outcome measures to assess potential impacts on care quality.

Communication Studies Problems

41. Media Representation and Public Perception: “How does media representation of minority groups influence public perceptions and biases?”

• Theoretical Framework : Cultivation Theory
• Methodology : Content analysis of media representations combined with quantitative surveys assessing public perceptions and attitudes.

42. Digital Communication and Relationship Building: “How has the rise of digital communication platforms impacted the way individuals build and maintain personal relationships?”

• Theoretical Framework : Social Penetration Theory
• Methodology : Mixed methods, combining quantitative surveys on digital communication habits with qualitative interviews exploring personal relationship dynamics.

43. Crisis Communication Effectiveness: “What strategies are most effective in managing public relations during organizational crises, and how do they influence public trust?”

• Theoretical Framework : Situational Crisis Communication Theory (SCCT)
• Methodology : Case study analysis of past organizational crises, assessing communication strategies used and subsequent public trust metrics.

44. Nonverbal Cues in Virtual Communication: “How do nonverbal cues, such as facial expressions and gestures, influence message interpretation in virtual communication platforms?”

• Theoretical Framework : Social Semiotics
• Methodology : Experimental design using video conferencing tools, analyzing participants’ interpretations of messages with varying nonverbal cues.

45. Influence of Social Media on Political Engagement: “How does exposure to political content on social media platforms influence individuals’ political engagement and activism?”

• Theoretical Framework : Uses and Gratifications Theory
• Methodology : Quantitative surveys assessing social media habits and political engagement levels, combined with content analysis of political posts on popular platforms.

Before you Go: Tips and Tricks for Writing a Research Problem

This is an incredibly stressful time for research students. The research problem is going to lock you into a specific line of inquiry for the rest of your studies.

So, here’s what I tend to suggest to my students:

• Start with something you find intellectually stimulating – Too many students choose projects because they think it hasn’t been studies or they’ve found a research gap. Don’t over-estimate the importance of finding a research gap. There are gaps in every line of inquiry. For now, just find a topic you think you can really sink your teeth into and will enjoy learning about.
• Take 5 ideas to your supervisor – Approach your research supervisor, professor, lecturer, TA, our course leader with 5 research problem ideas and run each by them. The supervisor will have valuable insights that you didn’t consider that will help you narrow-down and refine your problem even more.
• Trust your supervisor – The supervisor-student relationship is often very strained and stressful. While of course this is your project, your supervisor knows the internal politics and conventions of academic research. The depth of knowledge about how to navigate academia and get you out the other end with your degree is invaluable. Don’t underestimate their advice.

I’ve got a full article on all my tips and tricks for doing research projects right here – I recommend reading it:

• 9 Tips on How to Choose a Dissertation Topic

• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd-2/ 10 Reasons you’re Perpetually Single
• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd-2/ 20 Montessori Toddler Bedrooms (Design Inspiration)
• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd-2/ 21 Montessori Homeschool Setups
• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd-2/ 101 Hidden Talents Examples

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Home » Research Problem – Examples, Types and Guide

Research Problem – Examples, Types and Guide

Table of Contents

Research Problem

Definition:

Research problem is a specific and well-defined issue or question that a researcher seeks to investigate through research. It is the starting point of any research project, as it sets the direction, scope, and purpose of the study.

Types of Research Problems

Types of Research Problems are as follows:

Descriptive problems

These problems involve describing or documenting a particular phenomenon, event, or situation. For example, a researcher might investigate the demographics of a particular population, such as their age, gender, income, and education.

Exploratory problems

These problems are designed to explore a particular topic or issue in depth, often with the goal of generating new ideas or hypotheses. For example, a researcher might explore the factors that contribute to job satisfaction among employees in a particular industry.

Explanatory Problems

These problems seek to explain why a particular phenomenon or event occurs, and they typically involve testing hypotheses or theories. For example, a researcher might investigate the relationship between exercise and mental health, with the goal of determining whether exercise has a causal effect on mental health.

Predictive Problems

These problems involve making predictions or forecasts about future events or trends. For example, a researcher might investigate the factors that predict future success in a particular field or industry.

Evaluative Problems

These problems involve assessing the effectiveness of a particular intervention, program, or policy. For example, a researcher might evaluate the impact of a new teaching method on student learning outcomes.

How to Define a Research Problem

Defining a research problem involves identifying a specific question or issue that a researcher seeks to address through a research study. Here are the steps to follow when defining a research problem:

• Identify a broad research topic : Start by identifying a broad topic that you are interested in researching. This could be based on your personal interests, observations, or gaps in the existing literature.
• Conduct a literature review : Once you have identified a broad topic, conduct a thorough literature review to identify the current state of knowledge in the field. This will help you identify gaps or inconsistencies in the existing research that can be addressed through your study.
• Refine the research question: Based on the gaps or inconsistencies identified in the literature review, refine your research question to a specific, clear, and well-defined problem statement. Your research question should be feasible, relevant, and important to the field of study.
• Develop a hypothesis: Based on the research question, develop a hypothesis that states the expected relationship between variables.
• Define the scope and limitations: Clearly define the scope and limitations of your research problem. This will help you focus your study and ensure that your research objectives are achievable.
• Get feedback: Get feedback from your advisor or colleagues to ensure that your research problem is clear, feasible, and relevant to the field of study.

Components of a Research Problem

The components of a research problem typically include the following:

• Topic : The general subject or area of interest that the research will explore.
• Research Question : A clear and specific question that the research seeks to answer or investigate.
• Objective : A statement that describes the purpose of the research, what it aims to achieve, and the expected outcomes.
• Hypothesis : An educated guess or prediction about the relationship between variables, which is tested during the research.
• Variables : The factors or elements that are being studied, measured, or manipulated in the research.
• Methodology : The overall approach and methods that will be used to conduct the research.
• Scope and Limitations : A description of the boundaries and parameters of the research, including what will be included and excluded, and any potential constraints or limitations.
• Significance: A statement that explains the potential value or impact of the research, its contribution to the field of study, and how it will add to the existing knowledge.

Research Problem Examples

Following are some Research Problem Examples:

Research Problem Examples in Psychology are as follows:

• Exploring the impact of social media on adolescent mental health.
• Investigating the effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral therapy for treating anxiety disorders.
• Studying the impact of prenatal stress on child development outcomes.
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to addiction and relapse in substance abuse treatment.
• Examining the impact of personality traits on romantic relationships.

Research Problem Examples in Sociology are as follows:

• Investigating the relationship between social support and mental health outcomes in marginalized communities.
• Studying the impact of globalization on labor markets and employment opportunities.
• Analyzing the causes and consequences of gentrification in urban neighborhoods.
• Investigating the impact of family structure on social mobility and economic outcomes.
• Examining the effects of social capital on community development and resilience.

Research Problem Examples in Economics are as follows:

• Studying the effects of trade policies on economic growth and development.
• Analyzing the impact of automation and artificial intelligence on labor markets and employment opportunities.
• Investigating the factors that contribute to economic inequality and poverty.
• Examining the impact of fiscal and monetary policies on inflation and economic stability.
• Studying the relationship between education and economic outcomes, such as income and employment.

Political Science

Research Problem Examples in Political Science are as follows:

• Analyzing the causes and consequences of political polarization and partisan behavior.
• Investigating the impact of social movements on political change and policymaking.
• Studying the role of media and communication in shaping public opinion and political discourse.
• Examining the effectiveness of electoral systems in promoting democratic governance and representation.
• Investigating the impact of international organizations and agreements on global governance and security.

Environmental Science

Research Problem Examples in Environmental Science are as follows:

• Studying the impact of air pollution on human health and well-being.
• Investigating the effects of deforestation on climate change and biodiversity loss.
• Analyzing the impact of ocean acidification on marine ecosystems and food webs.
• Studying the relationship between urban development and ecological resilience.
• Examining the effectiveness of environmental policies and regulations in promoting sustainability and conservation.

Research Problem Examples in Education are as follows:

• Investigating the impact of teacher training and professional development on student learning outcomes.
• Studying the effectiveness of technology-enhanced learning in promoting student engagement and achievement.
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to achievement gaps and educational inequality.
• Examining the impact of parental involvement on student motivation and achievement.
• Studying the effectiveness of alternative educational models, such as homeschooling and online learning.

Research Problem Examples in History are as follows:

• Analyzing the social and economic factors that contributed to the rise and fall of ancient civilizations.
• Investigating the impact of colonialism on indigenous societies and cultures.
• Studying the role of religion in shaping political and social movements throughout history.
• Analyzing the impact of the Industrial Revolution on economic and social structures.
• Examining the causes and consequences of global conflicts, such as World War I and II.

Research Problem Examples in Business are as follows:

• Studying the impact of corporate social responsibility on brand reputation and consumer behavior.
• Investigating the effectiveness of leadership development programs in improving organizational performance and employee satisfaction.
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful entrepreneurship and small business development.
• Examining the impact of mergers and acquisitions on market competition and consumer welfare.
• Studying the effectiveness of marketing strategies and advertising campaigns in promoting brand awareness and sales.

Research Problem Example for Students

An Example of a Research Problem for Students could be:

“How does social media usage affect the academic performance of high school students?”

This research problem is specific, measurable, and relevant. It is specific because it focuses on a particular area of interest, which is the impact of social media on academic performance. It is measurable because the researcher can collect data on social media usage and academic performance to evaluate the relationship between the two variables. It is relevant because it addresses a current and important issue that affects high school students.

To conduct research on this problem, the researcher could use various methods, such as surveys, interviews, and statistical analysis of academic records. The results of the study could provide insights into the relationship between social media usage and academic performance, which could help educators and parents develop effective strategies for managing social media use among students.

Another example of a research problem for students:

“Does participation in extracurricular activities impact the academic performance of middle school students?”

This research problem is also specific, measurable, and relevant. It is specific because it focuses on a particular type of activity, extracurricular activities, and its impact on academic performance. It is measurable because the researcher can collect data on students’ participation in extracurricular activities and their academic performance to evaluate the relationship between the two variables. It is relevant because extracurricular activities are an essential part of the middle school experience, and their impact on academic performance is a topic of interest to educators and parents.

To conduct research on this problem, the researcher could use surveys, interviews, and academic records analysis. The results of the study could provide insights into the relationship between extracurricular activities and academic performance, which could help educators and parents make informed decisions about the types of activities that are most beneficial for middle school students.

Applications of Research Problem

Applications of Research Problem are as follows:

• Academic research: Research problems are used to guide academic research in various fields, including social sciences, natural sciences, humanities, and engineering. Researchers use research problems to identify gaps in knowledge, address theoretical or practical problems, and explore new areas of study.
• Business research : Research problems are used to guide business research, including market research, consumer behavior research, and organizational research. Researchers use research problems to identify business challenges, explore opportunities, and develop strategies for business growth and success.
• Healthcare research : Research problems are used to guide healthcare research, including medical research, clinical research, and health services research. Researchers use research problems to identify healthcare challenges, develop new treatments and interventions, and improve healthcare delivery and outcomes.
• Public policy research : Research problems are used to guide public policy research, including policy analysis, program evaluation, and policy development. Researchers use research problems to identify social issues, assess the effectiveness of existing policies and programs, and develop new policies and programs to address societal challenges.
• Environmental research : Research problems are used to guide environmental research, including environmental science, ecology, and environmental management. Researchers use research problems to identify environmental challenges, assess the impact of human activities on the environment, and develop sustainable solutions to protect the environment.

Purpose of Research Problems

The purpose of research problems is to identify an area of study that requires further investigation and to formulate a clear, concise and specific research question. A research problem defines the specific issue or problem that needs to be addressed and serves as the foundation for the research project.

Identifying a research problem is important because it helps to establish the direction of the research and sets the stage for the research design, methods, and analysis. It also ensures that the research is relevant and contributes to the existing body of knowledge in the field.

A well-formulated research problem should:

• Clearly define the specific issue or problem that needs to be investigated
• Be specific and narrow enough to be manageable in terms of time, resources, and scope
• Be relevant to the field of study and contribute to the existing body of knowledge
• Be feasible and realistic in terms of available data, resources, and research methods
• Be interesting and intellectually stimulating for the researcher and potential readers or audiences.

Characteristics of Research Problem

The characteristics of a research problem refer to the specific features that a problem must possess to qualify as a suitable research topic. Some of the key characteristics of a research problem are:

• Clarity : A research problem should be clearly defined and stated in a way that it is easily understood by the researcher and other readers. The problem should be specific, unambiguous, and easy to comprehend.
• Relevance : A research problem should be relevant to the field of study, and it should contribute to the existing body of knowledge. The problem should address a gap in knowledge, a theoretical or practical problem, or a real-world issue that requires further investigation.
• Feasibility : A research problem should be feasible in terms of the availability of data, resources, and research methods. It should be realistic and practical to conduct the study within the available time, budget, and resources.
• Novelty : A research problem should be novel or original in some way. It should represent a new or innovative perspective on an existing problem, or it should explore a new area of study or apply an existing theory to a new context.
• Importance : A research problem should be important or significant in terms of its potential impact on the field or society. It should have the potential to produce new knowledge, advance existing theories, or address a pressing societal issue.
• Manageability : A research problem should be manageable in terms of its scope and complexity. It should be specific enough to be investigated within the available time and resources, and it should be broad enough to provide meaningful results.

Advantages of Research Problem

The advantages of a well-defined research problem are as follows:

• Focus : A research problem provides a clear and focused direction for the research study. It ensures that the study stays on track and does not deviate from the research question.
• Clarity : A research problem provides clarity and specificity to the research question. It ensures that the research is not too broad or too narrow and that the research objectives are clearly defined.
• Relevance : A research problem ensures that the research study is relevant to the field of study and contributes to the existing body of knowledge. It addresses gaps in knowledge, theoretical or practical problems, or real-world issues that require further investigation.
• Feasibility : A research problem ensures that the research study is feasible in terms of the availability of data, resources, and research methods. It ensures that the research is realistic and practical to conduct within the available time, budget, and resources.
• Novelty : A research problem ensures that the research study is original and innovative. It represents a new or unique perspective on an existing problem, explores a new area of study, or applies an existing theory to a new context.
• Importance : A research problem ensures that the research study is important and significant in terms of its potential impact on the field or society. It has the potential to produce new knowledge, advance existing theories, or address a pressing societal issue.
• Rigor : A research problem ensures that the research study is rigorous and follows established research methods and practices. It ensures that the research is conducted in a systematic, objective, and unbiased manner.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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The Research Problem & Statement

What they are & how to write them (with examples)

By: Derek Jansen (MBA) | Expert Reviewed By: Eunice Rautenbach (DTech) | March 2023

If you’re new to academic research, you’re bound to encounter the concept of a “ research problem ” or “ problem statement ” fairly early in your learning journey. Having a good research problem is essential, as it provides a foundation for developing high-quality research, from relatively small research papers to a full-length PhD dissertations and theses.

In this post, we’ll unpack what a research problem is and how it’s related to a problem statement . We’ll also share some examples and provide a step-by-step process you can follow to identify and evaluate study-worthy research problems for your own project.

Overview: Research Problem 101

What is a research problem.

• What is a problem statement?

Where do research problems come from?

• How to find a suitable research problem
• Key takeaways

A research problem is, at the simplest level, the core issue that a study will try to solve or (at least) examine. In other words, it’s an explicit declaration about the problem that your dissertation, thesis or research paper will address. More technically, it identifies the research gap that the study will attempt to fill (more on that later).

Let’s look at an example to make the research problem a little more tangible.

To justify a hypothetical study, you might argue that there’s currently a lack of research regarding the challenges experienced by first-generation college students when writing their dissertations [ PROBLEM ] . As a result, these students struggle to successfully complete their dissertations, leading to higher-than-average dropout rates [ CONSEQUENCE ]. Therefore, your study will aim to address this lack of research – i.e., this research problem [ SOLUTION ].

A research problem can be theoretical in nature, focusing on an area of academic research that is lacking in some way. Alternatively, a research problem can be more applied in nature, focused on finding a practical solution to an established problem within an industry or an organisation. In other words, theoretical research problems are motivated by the desire to grow the overall body of knowledge , while applied research problems are motivated by the need to find practical solutions to current real-world problems (such as the one in the example above).

As you can probably see, the research problem acts as the driving force behind any study , as it directly shapes the research aims, objectives and research questions , as well as the research approach. Therefore, it’s really important to develop a very clearly articulated research problem before you even start your research proposal . A vague research problem will lead to unfocused, potentially conflicting research aims, objectives and research questions .

What is a research problem statement?

As the name suggests, a problem statement (within a research context, at least) is an explicit statement that clearly and concisely articulates the specific research problem your study will address. While your research problem can span over multiple paragraphs, your problem statement should be brief , ideally no longer than one paragraph . Importantly, it must clearly state what the problem is (whether theoretical or practical in nature) and how the study will address it.

Here’s an example of a statement of the problem in a research context:

Rural communities across Ghana lack access to clean water, leading to high rates of waterborne illnesses and infant mortality. Despite this, there is little research investigating the effectiveness of community-led water supply projects within the Ghanaian context. Therefore, this study aims to investigate the effectiveness of such projects in improving access to clean water and reducing rates of waterborne illnesses in these communities.

As you can see, this problem statement clearly and concisely identifies the issue that needs to be addressed (i.e., a lack of research regarding the effectiveness of community-led water supply projects) and the research question that the study aims to answer (i.e., are community-led water supply projects effective in reducing waterborne illnesses?), all within one short paragraph.

Need a helping hand?

Wherever there is a lack of well-established and agreed-upon academic literature , there is an opportunity for research problems to arise, since there is a paucity of (credible) knowledge. In other words, research problems are derived from research gaps . These gaps can arise from various sources, including the emergence of new frontiers or new contexts, as well as disagreements within the existing research.

Let’s look at each of these scenarios:

New frontiers – new technologies, discoveries or breakthroughs can open up entirely new frontiers where there is very little existing research, thereby creating fresh research gaps. For example, as generative AI technology became accessible to the general public in 2023, the full implications and knock-on effects of this were (or perhaps, still are) largely unknown and therefore present multiple avenues for researchers to explore.

New contexts – very often, existing research tends to be concentrated on specific contexts and geographies. Therefore, even within well-studied fields, there is often a lack of research within niche contexts. For example, just because a study finds certain results within a western context doesn’t mean that it would necessarily find the same within an eastern context. If there’s reason to believe that results may vary across these geographies, a potential research gap emerges.

Disagreements – within many areas of existing research, there are (quite naturally) conflicting views between researchers, where each side presents strong points that pull in opposing directions. In such cases, it’s still somewhat uncertain as to which viewpoint (if any) is more accurate. As a result, there is room for further research in an attempt to “settle” the debate.

Of course, many other potential scenarios can give rise to research gaps, and consequently, research problems, but these common ones are a useful starting point. If you’re interested in research gaps, you can learn more here .

How to find a research problem

Given that research problems flow from research gaps , finding a strong research problem for your research project means that you’ll need to first identify a clear research gap. Below, we’ll present a four-step process to help you find and evaluate potential research problems.

If you’ve read our other articles about finding a research topic , you’ll find the process below very familiar as the research problem is the foundation of any study . In other words, finding a research problem is much the same as finding a research topic.

Step 1 – Identify your area of interest

Naturally, the starting point is to first identify a general area of interest . Chances are you already have something in mind, but if not, have a look at past dissertations and theses within your institution to get some inspiration. These present a goldmine of information as they’ll not only give you ideas for your own research, but they’ll also help you see exactly what the norms and expectations are for these types of projects.

At this stage, you don’t need to get super specific. The objective is simply to identify a couple of potential research areas that interest you. For example, if you’re undertaking research as part of a business degree, you may be interested in social media marketing strategies for small businesses, leadership strategies for multinational companies, etc.

Depending on the type of project you’re undertaking, there may also be restrictions or requirements regarding what topic areas you’re allowed to investigate, what type of methodology you can utilise, etc. So, be sure to first familiarise yourself with your institution’s specific requirements and keep these front of mind as you explore potential research ideas.

Step 2 – Review the literature and develop a shortlist

Once you’ve decided on an area that interests you, it’s time to sink your teeth into the literature . In other words, you’ll need to familiarise yourself with the existing research regarding your interest area. Google Scholar is a good starting point for this, as you can simply enter a few keywords and quickly get a feel for what’s out there. Keep an eye out for recent literature reviews and systematic review-type journal articles, as these will provide a good overview of the current state of research.

At this stage, you don’t need to read every journal article from start to finish . A good strategy is to pay attention to the abstract, intro and conclusion , as together these provide a snapshot of the key takeaways. As you work your way through the literature, keep an eye out for what’s missing – in other words, what questions does the current research not answer adequately (or at all)? Importantly, pay attention to the section titled “ further research is needed ”, typically found towards the very end of each journal article. This section will specifically outline potential research gaps that you can explore, based on the current state of knowledge (provided the article you’re looking at is recent).

Take the time to engage with the literature and develop a big-picture understanding of the current state of knowledge. Reviewing the literature takes time and is an iterative process , but it’s an essential part of the research process, so don’t cut corners at this stage.

As you work through the review process, take note of any potential research gaps that are of interest to you. From there, develop a shortlist of potential research gaps (and resultant research problems) – ideally 3 – 5 options that interest you.

Step 3 – Evaluate your potential options

Once you’ve developed your shortlist, you’ll need to evaluate your options to identify a winner. There are many potential evaluation criteria that you can use, but we’ll outline three common ones here: value, practicality and personal appeal.

Value – a good research problem needs to create value when successfully addressed. Ask yourself:

• Who will this study benefit (e.g., practitioners, researchers, academia)?
• How will it benefit them specifically?
• How much will it benefit them?

Practicality – a good research problem needs to be manageable in light of your resources. Ask yourself:

• What data will I need access to?
• What knowledge and skills will I need to undertake the analysis?
• What equipment or software will I need to process and/or analyse the data?
• How much time will I need?
• What costs might I incur?

Personal appeal – a research project is a commitment, so the research problem that you choose needs to be genuinely attractive and interesting to you. Ask yourself:

• How appealing is the prospect of solving this research problem (on a scale of 1 – 10)?
• Why, specifically, is it attractive (or unattractive) to me?
• Does the research align with my longer-term goals (e.g., career goals, educational path, etc)?

Depending on how many potential options you have, you may want to consider creating a spreadsheet where you numerically rate each of the options in terms of these criteria. Remember to also include any criteria specified by your institution . From there, tally up the numbers and pick a winner.

Step 4 – Craft your problem statement

Once you’ve selected your research problem, the final step is to craft a problem statement. Remember, your problem statement needs to be a concise outline of what the core issue is and how your study will address it. Aim to fit this within one paragraph – don’t waffle on. Have a look at the problem statement example we mentioned earlier if you need some inspiration.

Key Takeaways

We’ve covered a lot of ground. Let’s do a quick recap of the key takeaways:

• A research problem is an explanation of the issue that your study will try to solve. This explanation needs to highlight the problem , the consequence and the solution or response.
• A problem statement is a clear and concise summary of the research problem , typically contained within one paragraph.
• Research problems emerge from research gaps , which themselves can emerge from multiple potential sources, including new frontiers, new contexts or disagreements within the existing literature.
• To find a research problem, you need to first identify your area of interest , then review the literature and develop a shortlist, after which you’ll evaluate your options, select a winner and craft a problem statement .

Psst... there’s more!

This post was based on one of our popular Research Bootcamps . If you're working on a research project, you'll definitely want to check this out ...

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Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper

• 1. Choosing a Research Problem
• Purpose of Guide
• Design Flaws to Avoid
• Independent and Dependent Variables
• Glossary of Research Terms
• Reading Research Effectively
• Narrowing a Topic Idea
• Broadening a Topic Idea
• Extending the Timeliness of a Topic Idea
• Academic Writing Style
• Applying Critical Thinking
• Choosing a Title
• Making an Outline
• Paragraph Development
• Research Process Video Series
• Executive Summary
• The C.A.R.S. Model
• Background Information
• The Research Problem/Question
• Theoretical Framework
• Citation Tracking
• Content Alert Services
• Evaluating Sources
• Primary Sources
• Secondary Sources
• Tiertiary Sources
• Scholarly vs. Popular Publications
• Qualitative Methods
• Quantitative Methods
• Insiderness
• Using Non-Textual Elements
• Limitations of the Study
• Common Grammar Mistakes
• Writing Concisely
• Avoiding Plagiarism
• Footnotes or Endnotes?
• Further Readings
• Generative AI and Writing
• USC Libraries Tutorials and Other Guides
• Bibliography

In the social and behavioral sciences, the subject of analysis is most often framed as a problem that must be researched in order to obtain a greater understanding, formulate a set of solutions or recommended courses of action, and/or develop a more effective approach to practice. The research problem, therefore, is the main organizing principle guiding the analysis of your research. The problem under investigation establishes an occasion for writing and a focus that governs what you want to say. It represents the core subject matter of scholarly communication and the means by which scholars arrive at other topics of conversation and the discovery of new knowledge and understanding.

Alvesson, Mats and Jörgen Sandberg. Constructing Research Questions: Doing Interesting Research . London: Sage, 2013; Jacobs, Ronald L. “Developing a Dissertation Research Problem: A Guide for Doctoral Students in Human Resource Development and Adult Education.” New Horizons in Adult Education and Human Resource Development 25 (Summer 2013): 103-117; Chapter 1: Research and the Research Problem. Nicholas Walliman . Your Research Project: Designing and Planning Your Work . 3rd edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 2011.

Choosing a Research Problem / How to Begin

Do not assume that identifying a research problem to investigate will be a quick and easy task! You should be thinking about it during the beginning of the course. There are generally three ways you are asked to write about a research problem : 1) your professor provides you with a general topic from which you study a particular aspect; 2) your professor provides you with a list of possible topics to study and you choose a topic from that list; or, 3) your professor leaves it up to you to choose a topic and you only have to obtain permission to write about it before beginning your investigation. Here are some strategies for getting started for each scenario.

I.  How To Begin:  You are given the topic to write about

Step 1 : Identify concepts and terms that make up the topic statement . For example, your professor wants the class to focus on the following research problem: “Is the European Union a credible security actor with the capacity to contribute to confronting global terrorism?" The main concepts in this problem are: European Union, security, global terrorism, credibility [ hint : focus on identifying proper nouns, nouns or noun phrases, and action verbs in the assignment description]. Step 2 : Review related literature to help refine how you will approach examining the topic and finding a way to analyze it . You can begin by doing any or all of the following: reading through background information from materials listed in your course syllabus; searching the USC Libraries Catalog to find a recent book on the topic and, if appropriate, more specialized works about the topic; conducting a preliminary review of the research literature using multidisciplinary databases such as ProQuest or subject-specific databases from the " By Subject Area " drop down menu located above the list of databases.

Choose the advanced search option in the database and enter into each search box the main concept terms you developed in Step 1. Also consider using their synonyms to retrieve additional relevant records. This will help you refine and frame the scope of the research problem. You will likely need to do this several times before you can finalize how to approach writing about the topic. NOTE: Always review the references from your most relevant research results cited by the authors in footnotes, endnotes, or a bibliography to locate related research on your topic. This is a good strategy for identifying important prior research about the topic because titles that are repeatedly cited indicate their significance in laying a foundation for understanding the problem. However, if you’re having trouble at this point locating relevant research literature, ask a librarian for help!

ANOTHER NOTE:   If you find an article from a database that's particularly helpful, paste it into Google Scholar , placing the title of the article in quotes. If the article record appears, look for a "cited by" reference followed by a number [e.g., C ited by 37] just below the record. This link indicates how many times other scholars have subsequently cited that article in their own research since it was first published. This is an effective strategy for identifying more current, related research on your topic. Finding additional cited by references from your original list of cited by references helps you navigate through the literature and, by so doing, understand the evolution of thought around a particular research problem. Step 3 : Since social science research papers are generally designed to encourage you to develop your own ideas and arguments, look for sources that can help broaden, modify, or strengthen your initial thoughts and arguments. For example, if you decide to argue that the European Union is inadequately prepared to take on responsibilities for broader global security because of the debt crisis in many EU countries, then focus on identifying sources that support as well as refute this position. From the advanced search option in ProQuest , a sample search would use "European Union" in one search box, "global security" in the second search box, and adding a third search box to include "debt crisis."

There are least four appropriate roles your related literature plays in helping you formulate how to begin your analysis :

• Sources of criticism -- frequently, you'll find yourself reading materials that are relevant to your chosen topic, but you disagree with the author's position. Therefore, one way that you can use a source is to describe the counter-argument, provide evidence from your own review of the literature as to why the prevailing argument is unsatisfactory, and to discuss how your approach is more appropriate based upon your interpretation of the evidence.
• Sources of new ideas -- while a general goal in writing college research papers in the social sciences is to examine a research problem with some basic idea of what position you'd like to take and on what basis you'd like to defend your position, it is certainly acceptable [and often encouraged] to read the literature and extend, modify, and refine your own position in light of the ideas proposed by others.
• Sources for historical context -- another role your related literature plays in formulating how to begin your analysis is to place issues and events in proper historical context. This can help to demonstrate familiarity with developments in relevant scholarship about your topic, provide a means of comparing historical versus contemporary issues and events, and identifying key people, places, and events that had an important role related to the research problem. Given its archival journal coverage, a good multidisciplinary database to use in this case is JSTOR .
• Sources of interdisciplinary insight -- an advantage of using databases like ProQuest to begin exploring your topic is that it covers publications from a variety of different disciplines. Another way to formulate how to study the topic is to look at it from different disciplinary perspectives. If the topic concerns immigration reform, for example, ask yourself, how do studies from sociological journals found by searching ProQuest vary in their analysis from those in political science journals. A goal in reviewing related literature is to provide a means of approaching a topic from multiple perspectives rather than the perspective offered from just one discipline.

NOTE: Remember to keep careful notes at every stage or utilize a citation management system like EndNotes or RefWorks . You may think you'll remember what you have searched and where you found things, but it’s easy to forget or get confused. Most databases have a search history feature that allows you to go back and see what searches you conducted previously as long as you haven't closed your session. If you start over, that history could be deleted.

Step 4 : Assuming you have done an effective job of synthesizing and thinking about the results of your initial search for related literature, you're ready to prepare a detailed outline for your paper that lays the foundation for a more in-depth and focused review of relevant research literature [after consulting with a librarian, if needed!]. How will you know you haven't done an effective job of synthesizing and thinking about the results of our initial search for related literature? A good indication is that you start composing the outline and gaps appear in how you want to approach the study. This indicates the need to gather further background information and analysis about the research problem.

II.  How To Begin:  You are provided a list of possible topics to choose from Step 1 : I know what you’re thinking--which topic on this list will be the easiest to find the most information on? An effective instructor would never include a topic that is so obscure or complex that no research is available to examine and from which to design an effective study. Therefore, don't approach a list of possible topics to study from the perspective of trying to identify the path of least resistance; choose a topic that you find interesting in some way, that is controversial and that you have a strong opinion about, that has some personal meaning for you, or relates to your major or a minor. You're going to be working on the topic for quite some time, so choose one that you find interesting and engaging or that motivates you to take a position. Embrace the opportunity to learn something new! Once you’ve settled on a topic of interest from the list provided by your professor, follow Steps 1 - 4 listed above to further develop it into a research paper.

NOTE: It’s ok to review related literature to help refine how you will approach analyzing a topic, and then discover that the topic isn’t all that interesting to you. In that case, choose a different topic from the list. Just don’t wait too long to make a switch and, of course, be sure to inform your professor that you are changing your topic.

III.  How To Begin:  Your professor leaves it up to you to choose a topic

Step 1 : Under this scenario, the key process is turning an idea or general thought into a topic that can be configured into a research problem. When given an assignment where you choose the topic, don't begin by thinking about what to write about, but rather, ask yourself the question, "What do I want to understand or learn about?" Treat an open-ended research assignment as an opportunity to gain new knowledge about something that's important or exciting to you in the context of the overall subject of the course.

Step 2 : If you lack ideas, or wish to gain focus, try any or all of the following strategies:

• Review your course readings, particularly the suggested readings, for topic ideas. Don't just review what you've already read, but jump ahead in the syllabus to readings that have not been covered yet.
• Search the USC Libraries Catalog for a recently published book and, if appropriate, more specialized works related to the discipline area of the course [e.g., for the course SOCI 335: Society and Population, search for books on "population and society" or "population and social impact"]. Reviewing the contents of a book about your area of interest can give you insight into what conversations scholars are having about the topic and, thus, how you might want to contribute your own ideas to these conversations through the research paper you write for the class.
• Browse through some current scholarly [a.k.a., academic, peer reviewed] journals in your subject discipline. Even if most of the articles are not relevant, you can skim through the contents quickly. You only need one to be the spark that begins the process of wanting to learn more about a topic. Consult with a librarian and/or your professor about what constitutes the core journals within the subject area of the writing assignment.
• Think about essays you have written for other courses you have taken or academic lectures and programs you have attended outside of class. Thinking back, ask yourself why did you want to take this class or attend this event? What interested you the most? What would you like to know more about? Place this question in the context of the current course assignment. Note that this strategy also applies to anything you've watched on TV or has been shared on social media.
• Search online news media sources, such as CNN , the Los Angeles Times , Huffington Post , MSNBC , Fox News , or Newsweek , to see if your idea has been covered by the media. Use this coverage to refine your idea into something that you'd like to investigate further, but in a more deliberate, scholarly way in relation to a particular problem that needs to be researched.

Step 3 : To build upon your initial idea, use the suggestions under this tab to help narrow , broaden , or increase the timeliness of your idea so you can write it out as a research problem.

Once you are comfortable with having turned your idea into a research problem, follow Steps 1 - 4 listed in Part I above to further develop it into an outline for a research paper.

Alderman, Jim. "Choosing a Research Topic." Beginning Library and Information Systems Strategies. Paper 17. Jacksonville, FL: University of North Florida Digital Commons, 2014; Alvesson, Mats and Jörgen Sandberg. Constructing Research Questions: Doing Interesting Research . London: Sage, 2013; Chapter 2: Choosing a Research Topic. Adrian R. Eley. Becoming a Successful Early Career Researcher . New York: Routledge, 2012; Answering the Question. Academic Skills Centre. University of Canberra; Brainstorming. Department of English Writing Guide. George Mason University; Brainstorming. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Chapter 1: Research and the Research Problem. Nicholas Walliman . Your Research Project: Designing and Planning Your Work . 3rd edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 2011; Choosing a Topic. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University;  Mullaney, Thomas S. and Christopher Rea. Where Research Begins: Choosing a Research Project That Matters to You (and the World) . Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 2022; Coming Up With Your Topic. Institute for Writing Rhetoric. Dartmouth College; How To Write a Thesis Statement. Writing Tutorial Services, Center for Innovative Teaching and Learning. Indiana University; Identify Your Question. Start Your Research. University Library, University of California, Santa Cruz; The Process of Writing a Research Paper. Department of History. Trent University; Trochim, William M.K. Problem Formulation. Research Methods Knowledge Base. 2006.

Resources for Identifying a Topic

Resources for Identifying a Research Problem

If you are having difficulty identifying a topic to study or need basic background information, the following web resources and databases can be useful:

• CQ Researcher -- a collection of single-themed public policy reports that provide an overview of an issue. Each report includes background information, an assessment of the current policy situation, statistical tables and maps, pro/con statements from representatives of opposing positions, and a bibliography of key sources.
• New York Times Topics -- each topic page collects news articles, reference and archival information, photos, graphics, audio and video files. Content is available without charge on articles going back to 1981.
• Opposing Viewpoints In Context -- an online resource covering a wide range of social issues from a variety of perspectives. The database contains a media-rich collection of materials, including pro/con viewpoint essays, topic overviews, primary source materials, biographies of social activists and reformers, journal articles, statistical tables, charts and graphs, images, videos, and podcasts.
• Policy Commons -- platform for objective, fact-based research from the world’s leading policy experts, nonpartisan think tanks, and intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations. The database provides advanced searching across millions of pages of books, articles, working papers, reports, policy briefs, data sets, tables, charts, media, case studies, and statistical publications, including archived reports from more than 200 defunct think tanks. Coverage is international in scope.

Descriptions of resources are adapted or quoted from vendor websites.

Writing Tip

Not Finding Anything on Your Topic? Ask a Librarian!

Don't assume or jump to the conclusion that your topic is too narrowly defined or obscure just because your initial search has failed to locate any relevant studies. Librarians are experts in locating and critically assessing information and how it is organized. This information will help you develop strategies for analyzing existing knowledge in new ways. Therefore, always consult with a librarian before you consider giving up on finding information about what you want to investigate. If there isn't a lot of information about your topic, a librarian can help you identify a closely related topic to study. Use the Ask-A-Librarian link above to either chat with a librarian, send a general email to the librarians, or identify a subject expert librarian related to the course you are taking.

Another Writing Tip

A Research Problem is Not the Thesis Statement

A thesis statement and a research problem are two different parts of the introduction section of your paper. The thesis statement succinctly describes in one or two sentences, usually in the last paragraph of the introduction, what position you have reached about a topic. It includes an assertion that requires evidence and support, along with your argument about what you are researching and why. There are three general types of thesis statements that are intended to set forth a claim that you will seek to validate through the research you describe in your paper :

1) analytical statements that break down and evaluate the topic;

2) expository statements that present facts and research about the topic; and,

3) argumentative statements that make a claim about the topic and defend that claim. An  argumentative thesis statement is the most common type of statement required in social sciences writing assignments.

Before the thesis statement, however, your introduction must include a statement about a problem in which you describe either a key area of concern, a condition to be improved upon, a difficulty to be eliminated, or a troubling issue that exists . The research problem describes something that can be empirically verified and measured and is often followed by a set of questions that underpin how you plan to approach investigating that problem. In short, the thesis statement presents your argument about the research problem and summarizes how you plan to address it.

Tips and Examples for Writing Thesis Statements. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Write a Strong Thesis Statement! The Writing Center, University of Evansville; Thesis Statements. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Tutorial #26: Thesis Statements and Topic Sentences. Writing Center, College of San Mateo; Creswell,  John W. and J. David Creswell. Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches . 5th edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2017.

Still Another Writing Tip

Don't be a Martyr!

In thinking about what to study, don't adopt the mindset of pursuing an esoteric or overly complicated topic just to impress your professor but that, in reality, does not have any real interest to you. Choose a topic that is challenging, but that has at least some interest to you or is something that you care about. Obviously, this is easier for courses within your major, but even for those nasty general education classes that you must take in order to graduate [and that provide an additional tuition revenue for the university], try to apply perspectives to the writing assignment that reflect your major.

For example, if you are an international relations major taking a GE philosophy class where the assignment asks you to apply the question of "what is truth" to some aspect of life, you could choose to study how government leaders attempt to shape truth through the use of nationalistic propaganda. Using this approach will not only help you engage with class assignment, but it can create opportunities to understand research problems within your major from an interdisciplinary perspective.

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How to Write an Effective Problem Statement for Your Research Paper

• 4 minute read

Table of Contents

The problem statement usually appears at the beginning of an article, making it one of the first things readers encounter. An excellent problem statement not only explains the relevance and importance of the research but also helps readers quickly determine if the article aligns with their interests by clearly defining the topic. Therefore, the problem statement plays a unique role in the widespread dissemination of the paper and enhancing the researcher’s academic influence.  

In this article, we will focus on writing ideas, structure, and practical examples of the problem statement, helping researchers easily write an excellent problem statement.  

Basic Writing Strategies for the Problem Statement  

The problem statement aims to highlight the pressing issue the research intends to address. It should be concise and to the point. Researchers can follow a two-step approach: first, think about the content of the problem statement, and then organize the writing framework.  

Before writing, clarify the following points¹ :  

• What is the reader’s level of understanding of the research topic?  
• How can the significance of the research be effectively conveyed to the reader?  

After addressing these two questions, you can organize the content according to the following structure:  

• Clarify what you aim to achieve with your research.  
• Explore why the problem exists and explain how solving it helps reach the goal.  
• Outline the potential impact of the research, such as possible outcomes, challenges, and benefits.  
• Recommend a plan for your experiment that follows the rules of science.  
• Explain the potential consequences if the problem is not resolved (if applicable).  

Three Important Parts of the Problem Statement  

The content and length of the problem statement can vary depending on the type of research. Although there’s no fixed format, it’s helpful to include these three key parts:  

  Research Background:  

Explain clearly what problem your research focuses on. Describe how things would be better if this problem didn’t exist. Also, talk about what other researchers have tried to do about this problem and what still needs to be figured out.  

  Research Significance:  

Clarify the impact of the problem on the research field and society, and analyze the cause of the problem. Explain who will benefit from solving the problem, thus demonstrating the relevance of the research and its contribution to the existing research system.²  To illustrate the relevance, consider aspects such as the geographical location or process where the problem occurs, the time period during which it exists, and the severity of the problem.  

Solution:  

Describe the research objective and the expected solution or results.  

Understanding the Writing Method Through Examples  

To further explore the writing method of the problem statement, let’s look at the following case.  

Research Topic: 

The benefits of vitamin D supplementation on the immune system.  

Problem Statement: 

• Review existing research on the role of vitamin D in the immune system, emphasizing the potential impacts of vitamin D deficiency on the human body.  
• List the obstacles encountered when trying to increase vitamin D levels in the body through supplements, and briefly mention the physiological or molecular mechanisms behind these obstacles.  
• Clarify feasible ways to overcome these obstacles, such as new methods to promote the absorption of vitamin D in the intestine. Then, focus on the benefits of these methods, such as helping postmenopausal women with breast cancer improve their blood vitamin D levels.   

Points to Note: 

When crafting your problem statement, focus on essential details and avoid unnecessary information. Additionally, absolute terms such as “must” should be avoided.  

( The examples in this article are used only to illustrate writing points, and the academic views contained therein are not for reference. )  

By mastering these techniques and methods, you can enhance the clarity and impact of their problem statements. This not only makes the articles more engaging for reviewers and readers but also increases the likelihood of broader dissemination.  

For efficient and professional assistance, consider reaching out to Elsevier Language Services. Our team of expert editors, who are native English speakers across various disciplines, can help refine every aspect of your article, including the problem statement. Our goal is to ensure your research achieves efficient publication and has wide-reaching impact, supporting your academic journey in the long term.  

Type in wordcount for Plus Total: USD EUR JPY Follow this link if your manuscript is longer than 9,000 words. Upload

References:  

• SURF Workshop Resources: Problem Statements – Purdue OWL® – Purdue University. (n.d.). https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/subject_specific_writing/writing_in_the_purdue_surf_program/surf_workshop_resources_problem_statements/index.html
• Problem Statement | A practical guide to delivering results. (n.d.). Copyright (C)2024 a Practical Guide to Delivering Results. All Rights Reserved. https://deliveringresults.leeds.ac.uk/delivering-results-lifecycle/problem-statement/

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How to Write a Statement of the Problem in Research

Table of Contents

The problem statement is a foundation of academic research writing , providing a precise representation of an existing gap or issue in a particular field of study.

Crafting a sharp and focused problem statement lays the groundwork for your research project.

• It highlights the research's significance .
• Emphasizes its potential to influence the broader academic community.
• Represents the initial step for you to make a meaningful contribution to your discipline.

Therefore, in this article, we will discuss what is a statement of the problem in research and how to craft a compelling research problem statement.

What is a research problem statement?

A research problem statement is a concise, clear, and specific articulation of a gap in current knowledge that your research aims to bridge. It not only sets forth the scope and direction of your research but also establishes its relevance and significance.

Your problem statement in your research paper aims to:

• Define the gap : Clearly identify and articulate a specific gap or issue in the existing knowledge.
• Provide direction : Serve as a roadmap, guiding the course of your research and ensuring you remain focused.
• Establish relevance : Highlight the importance and significance of the problem in the context of your field or the broader world.
• Guide inquiry :  Formulate the research questions or hypotheses you'll explore.
• Communicate intent : Succinctly convey the core purpose of your research to stakeholders, peers, and any audience.
• Set boundaries : Clearly define the scope of your research to ensure it's focused and achievable.

When should you write a problem statement in research?

Initiate your research by crafting a clear problem statement. This should be done before any data collection or analysis, serving as a foundational anchor that clearly identifies the specific issue you aim to address.

By establishing this early on, you shape the direction of your research, ensuring it targets a genuine knowledge gap.

Furthermore, an effective and a concise statement of the problem in research attracts collaborators, funders, and supporters, resonating with its clarity and purpose. Remember, as your research unfolds, the statement might evolve, reflecting new insights and staying pertinent.

But how do you distinguish between a well-crafted problem statement and one that falls short?

Effective vs. ineffective research problem statements

Imagine a scenario where medical researchers aim to tackle a new strain of virus. Their effective problem statement wouldn't merely state the existence of the virus. Instead, it would delve into the specifics — the regions most affected, the demographics most vulnerable, and the current limitations in medical interventions.

Whereas an ineffective research problem statement is vague, overly broad, or ambiguous, failing to provide a clear direction for the research. It may not be rooted in existing literature, might lack clarity on its significance, or could be framed in a way that makes the research objectives unachievable or irrelevant.

To understand it better, let's consider the topic of “Remote work and employee productivity.”

Effective problem statement

“Over the past decade, there has been a 70% increase in organizations adopting remote work policies. While some studies suggest remote work enhances employee productivity, others indicate potential declines due to distractions at home.

However, there’s a lack of comprehensive research examining the specific factors in a remote environment that influence productivity. This study aims to identify and analyze these factors, providing organizations with actionable insights to optimize remote work policies.”

Why is this statement of a problem in research effective?

• Specificity : The statement provides a clear percentage to highlight the rise in remote work.
• Context : It acknowledges existing research and the conflicting findings.
• Clear gap identification : It points out the lack of comprehensive research on specific factors affecting productivity in remote work.
• Purpose : The statement concludes with a clear aim for the research.

Ineffective problem statement

"People are working from home a lot now, especially since there are so many internet tools. Some say it's good; others say it's not that great. This research will just look into the whole work-from-home thing and see what's up."

Why is this statement of a problem in research ineffective?

• Informal language : Phrases like "what's up" and "the whole work-from-home thing" are not suitable for academic writing.
• Vagueness : The statement doesn't provide any specific data or context about the rise of remote work.
• Lack of clear focus : It's unclear what aspect of remote work the research will address.
• Ambiguous purpose : The statement doesn't specify the research's objectives or expected outcomes.

After gaining an understanding of what an effective research problem statement looks like, let's dive deeper into how to write one.

How to write a problem statement in research?

Drafting your research problem statement at the onset of your research journey ensures that your research remains anchored. That means by defining and articulating the main issue or challenge you intend to address at the very beginning of your research process; you provide a clear focus and direction for the entire study.

Here's a detailed guide to how you can write an effective statement of the problem in research.

Identify the research area : Before addressing a specific problem, you need to know the broader domain or field of your study. This helps in contextualizing your research and ensuring it aligns with existing academic disciplines.

Example: If you're curious about the effects of digital technology on human behavior, your broader research area might be Digital Sociology or Media Studies.

Conduct preliminary literature review : Familiarize yourself with existing research related to your topic. This will help you understand what's already known and, more importantly, identify gaps or unresolved questions in the existing knowledge. This step also ensures you're advancing upon existing work rather than replicating it.

Example: Upon reviewing literature on digital technology and behavior, you find many studies on social media's impact on youth but fewer on its effects on the elderly.

Read how to conduct an effective literature review .

Define the specific problem : After thoroughly reviewing the literature, pinpoint a particular issue that your research will address. Ensure that this chosen issue is not only of substantial importance in its field but also realistically approachable given your resources and expertise. To define it precisely, you might consider:

• Highlighting discrepancies or contradictions in existing literature.
• Emphasizing the real-world implications of this gap.
• Assessing the feasibility of exploring this issue within your means and timeframe.

Example: You decide to investigate how digital technology, especially social media, affects the mental well-being of the elderly, given the limited research in this area.

Articulate clearly and concisely : Your problem statement should be straightforward and devoid of jargon. It needs to convey the essence of your research issue in a manner that's understandable to both experts and non-experts.

Example: " The impact of social media on the mental well-being of elderly individuals remains underexplored, despite the growing adoption of digital technology in this age group. "

Highlight the significance : Explain why your chosen research problem matters. This could be due to its real-world implications, its potential to fill a knowledge gap or its relevance to current events or trends.

Example: As the elderly population grows and becomes more digitally connected, understanding the psychological effects of social media on this demographic could inform digital literacy programs and mental health interventions.

Ensure feasibility : Your research problem should be something you can realistically study, given your resources, timeframe, and expertise. It's essential to ensure that you can gather data, conduct experiments, or access necessary materials or participants.

Example: You plan to survey elderly individuals in local community centers about their social media usage and perceived mental well-being, ensuring you have the means to reach this demographic.

Seek feedback : Discuss your preliminary problem statement with peers, mentors, or experts in the field. They can provide insights, point out potential pitfalls, or suggest refinements.

Example: After discussing with a gerontologist, you decide to also consider the role of digital training in moderating the effects of social media on the elderly.

Refine and Revise : Based on feedback and further reflection, revise and improve your problem statement. This iterative process ensures clarity, relevance, and precision.

Example: Your refined statement reads: Despite the increasing digital connectivity of the elderly, the effects of social media on their mental well-being, especially in the context of digital training, remain underexplored.

By following these detailed steps, you can craft a research problem statement that is both compelling and academically rigorous.

Having explored the details of crafting a research problem statement, it's crucial to distinguish it from another fundamental element in academic research: the thesis statement.

Difference between a thesis statement and a problem statement

While both terms are central to research, a thesis statement presents your primary claim or argument, whereas a problem statement describes the specific issue your research aims to address.

Think of the thesis statement as the conclusion you're driving towards, while the problem statement identifies a specific gap in current knowledge.

For instance, a problem statement might highlight the rising mental health issues among teenagers, while the thesis statement could propose that increased screen time is a significant contributor.

Refer to the comparison table between what is a thesis and a problem statement in the research below:

Common mistakes to avoid in writing statement of the problem in research

Mistakes in the research problem statement can lead to a domino effect, causing misalignment in research objectives, wasted resources, and even inconclusive or irrelevant results.

Recognizing and avoiding these pitfalls not only strengthens the foundation of your research but also ensures that your efforts concede impactful insights.

Here's a detailed exploration of frequent subjective, qualitative, quantitative and measurable mistakes and how you can sidestep them.

Being too broad or too narrow

A problem statement that's too broad can lack focus, making it challenging to derive specific research questions or objectives. Conversely, a statement that's too narrow might limit the scope of your research or make it too trivial.

Example of mistake: "Studying the effects of diet on health" is too broad, while "Studying the effects of eating green apples at 3 pm on heart health" is overly narrow.

You can refine the scope based on preliminary research. The correct way to write this problem statement will be "Studying the effects of a high-fiber diet on heart health in adults over 50." This statement is neither too broad nor too narrow, and it provides a clear direction for the research.

Using unnecessary jargon or technical language

While academic writing often involves academic terms, overloading your problem statement with jargon can alienate readers and obscure the actual problem.

Example of Mistake: "Examining the diurnal variations in macronutrient ingestion vis-à-vis metabolic homeostasis."

To ensure it’s not complicated, you can simplify and clarify. "Examining how daily changes in nutrient intake affect metabolic balance" conveys the same idea more accessible.

Not emphasizing the "Why" of the problem

It's not enough to state a problem; you must also convey its significance. Why does this problem matter? What are the implications of not addressing it?

Example of Mistake: "Many students are not engaging with online learning platforms."

You can proceed with the approach of highlighting the significance here. "Many students are not engaging with online learning platforms, leading to decreased academic performance and widening educational disparities."

Circular reasoning and lack of relevance

Your problem statement should be grounded in existing research or observed phenomena. Avoid statements that assume what they set out to prove or lack a clear basis in current knowledge.

Example of Mistake: "We need to study X because not enough research has been done on X."

Instead, try grounding your statement based on already-known facts. "While several studies have explored Y, the specific impact of X remains unclear, necessitating further research."

Being overly ambitious

While it's commendable to aim high, your problem statement should reflect a challenge that's achievable within your means, timeframe, and resources.

Example of Mistake: "This research will solve world hunger."

Here, you need to be realistic and focused. "This research aims to develop sustainable agricultural techniques to increase crop yields in arid regions."

By being mindful of these common mistakes, you can craft a problem statement that is clear, relevant and sets a solid foundation for your research.

Over-reliance on outdated data

Using data that is no longer relevant can mislead the direction of your research. It's essential to ensure that the statistics or findings you reference are current and pertinent to the present scenario.

Example of Mistake: "According to a 1995 study, only 5% of the population uses the internet for daily tasks."

You always cross-check the dates and relevance of the data you're using. For a contemporary study on internet usage, you'd want to reference more recent statistics.

Not specifying the sample size or demographic

A problem statement should be clear about the population or sample size being studied, especially when making generalizations or claims.

Example of Mistake: "People prefer online shopping to in-store shopping."

Here, you would benefit from specifying the demographic or sample size when presenting data to avoid overgeneralization. " In a survey of 1,000 urban residents aged 18-35, 70% expressed a preference for online shopping over in-store shopping. "

Ignoring conflicting data

Cherry-picking data that supports your hypothesis while ignoring conflicting data can lead to a biased problem statement.

Example of Mistake: "Research shows that all students benefit from online learning."

You’ve to ensure a balanced view by considering all relevant data, even if it contradicts your hypothesis. " While many studies highlight the advantages of online learning for students, some research points to challenges such as decreased motivation and lack of face-to-face interaction. "

Making unsubstantiated predictions

Projecting future trends without solid data can weaken the credibility of your problem statement.

Example of Mistake: "The demand for electric cars will increase by 500% in the next year."

Base your predictions on current trends and reliable data sources, avoiding hyperbolic or unsupported claims. " With the current growth rate and recent advancements in battery technology, there's potential for a significant rise in the demand for electric cars. "

Wrapping Up

A well-crafted problem statement ensures that your research is focused, relevant, and contributes meaningfully to the broader academic community.

However, the consequences of an incorrect or poorly constructed problem statement can be severe. It can lead to misdirected research efforts, wasted resources, compromised credibility, and even ethical concerns. Such pitfalls underscore the importance of dedicating time and effort to craft a precise and impactful problem statement.

So, as you start your research journey , remember that a well-defined problem statement is not just a starting point; it guides your entire research journey, ensuring clarity, relevance, and meaningful contributions to your field.

Frequently Asked Questions

A problem statement is a clear, concise and specific articulation of a gap in current knowledge that your research aims to bridge.

The Problem Statement should highlight existing gaps in current knowledge and also the significance of the research. It should also include the research question and purpose of the research.

Clear articulation of the problem and establishing relevance; Working thesis (methods to solve the problem); Purpose and scope of study — are the 3 parts of the problem statement.

While the statement of the problem articulates and delineates a particular research problem, Objectives designates the aims, purpose and strategies to address the particular problem.

Here’s an example — “The study aims to identify and analyze the specific factors that impact employee productivity, providing organizations with actionable insights to optimize remote work policies.”

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Research Problem – Definition, Steps & Tips

Published by Jamie Walker at August 12th, 2021 , Revised On October 3, 2023

Once you have chosen a research topic, the next stage is to explain the research problem: the detailed issue, ambiguity of the research, gap analysis, or gaps in knowledge and findings that you will discuss.

Here, in this article, we explore a research problem in a dissertation or an essay with some research problem examples to help you better understand how and when you should write a research problem.

“A research problem is a specific statement relating to an area of concern and is contingent on the type of research. Some research studies focus on theoretical and practical problems, while some focus on only one.”

The problem statement in the dissertation, essay, research paper, and other academic papers should be clearly stated and intended to expand information, knowledge, and contribution to change.

This article will assist in identifying and elaborating a research problem if you are unsure how to define your research problem. The most notable challenge in the research process is to formulate and identify a research problem. Formulating a problem statement and research questions while finalizing the research proposal or introduction for your dissertation or thesis is necessary.

Why is Research Problem Critical?

An interesting research topic is only the first step. The real challenge of the research process is to develop a well-rounded research problem.

A well-formulated research problem helps understand the research procedure; without it, your research will appear unforeseeable and awkward.

Research is a procedure based on a sequence and a research problem aids in following and completing the research in a sequence. Repetition of existing literature is something that should be avoided in research.

Therefore research problem in a dissertation or an essay needs to be well thought out and presented with a clear purpose. Hence, your research work contributes more value to existing knowledge. You need to be well aware of the problem so you can present logical solutions.

Formulating a research problem is the first step of conducting research, whether you are writing an essay, research paper,   dissertation , or  research proposal .

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Step 1: Identifying Problem Area – What is Research Problem

The most significant step in any research is to look for  unexplored areas, topics, and controversies . You aim to find gaps that your work will fill. Here are some research problem examples for you to better understand the concept.

Practical Research Problems

To conduct practical research, you will need practical research problems that are typically identified by analysing reports, previous research studies, and interactions with the experienced personals of pertinent disciplines. You might search for:

• Problems with performance or competence in an organization
• Institutional practices that could be enhanced
• Practitioners of relevant fields and their areas of concern
• Problems confronted by specific groups of people within your area of study

If your research work relates to an internship or a job, then it will be critical for you to identify a research problem that addresses certain issues faced by the firm the job or internship pertains to.

Examples of Practical Research Problems

Decreased voter participation in county A, as compared to the rest of the country.

The high employee turnover rate of department X of company Y influenced efficiency and team performance.

A charity institution, Y, suffers a lack of funding resulting in budget cuts for its programmes.

Theoretical Research Problems

Theoretical research relates to predicting, explaining, and understanding various phenomena. It also expands and challenges existing information and knowledge.

Identification of a research problem in theoretical research is achieved by analysing theories and fresh research literature relating to a broad area of research. This practice helps to find gaps in the research done by others and endorse the argument of your topic.

Here are some questions that you should bear in mind.

• A case or framework that has not been deeply analysed
• An ambiguity between more than one viewpoints
• An unstudied condition or relationships
• A problematic issue that needs to be addressed

Theoretical issues often contain practical implications, but immediate issues are often not resolved by these results. If that is the case, you might want to adopt a different research approach  to achieve the desired outcomes.

Examples of Theoretical Research Problems

Long-term Vitamin D deficiency affects cardiac patients are not well researched.

The relationship between races, sex, and income imbalances needs to be studied with reference to the economy of a specific country or region.

The disagreement among historians of Scottish nationalism regarding the contributions of Imperial Britain in the creation of the national identity for Scotland.

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Step 2: Understanding the Research Problem

The researcher further investigates the selected area of research to find knowledge and information relating to the research problem to address the findings in the research.

Background and Rationale

• Population influenced by the problem?
• Is it a persistent problem, or is it recently revealed?
• Research that has already been conducted on this problem?
• Any proposed solution to the problem?
• Recent arguments concerning the problem, what are the gaps in the problem?

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Particularity and Suitability

• What specific place, time, and/or people will be focused on?
• Any aspects of research that you may not be able to deal with?
• What will be the concerns if the problem remains unresolved?
• What are the benefices of the problem resolution (e.g. future researcher or organisation’s management)?

Example of a Specific Research Problem

A non-profit institution X has been examined on their existing support base retention, but the existing research does not incorporate an understanding of how to effectively target new donors. To continue their work, the institution needs more research and find strategies for effective fundraising.

Once the problem is narrowed down, the next stage is to propose a problem statement and hypothesis or research questions.

If you are unsure about what a research problem is and how to define the research problem, then you might want to take advantage of our dissertation proposal writing service. You may also want to take a look at our essay writing service if you need help with identifying a research problem for your essay.

Frequently Asked Questions

What is research problem with example.

A research problem is a specific challenge that requires investigation. Example: “What is the impact of social media on mental health among adolescents?” This problem drives research to analyse the relationship between social media use and mental well-being in young people.

How many types of research problems do we have?

• Descriptive: Describing phenomena as they exist.
• Explanatory: Understanding causes and effects.
• Exploratory: Investigating little-understood phenomena.
• Predictive: Forecasting future outcomes.
• Prescriptive: Recommending actions.
• Normative: Describing what ought to be.

What are the principles of the research problem?

• Relevance: Addresses a significant issue.
• Re searchability: Amenable to empirical investigation.
• Clarity: Clearly defined without ambiguity.
• Specificity: Narrowly framed, avoiding vagueness.
• Feasibility: Realistic to conduct with available resources.
• Novelty: Offers new insights or challenges existing knowledge.
• Ethical considerations: Respect rights, dignity, and safety.

Why is research problem important?

A research problem is crucial because it identifies knowledge gaps, directs the inquiry’s focus, and forms the foundation for generating hypotheses or questions. It drives the methodology and determination of study relevance, ensuring that research contributes meaningfully to academic discourse and potentially addresses real-world challenges.

How do you write a research problem?

To write a research problem, identify a knowledge gap or an unresolved issue in your field. Start with a broad topic, then narrow it down. Clearly articulate the problem in a concise statement, ensuring it’s researchable, significant, and relevant. Ground it in the existing literature to highlight its importance and context.

How can we solve research problem?

To solve a research problem, start by conducting a thorough literature review. Formulate hypotheses or research questions. Choose an appropriate research methodology. Collect and analyse data systematically. Interpret findings in the context of existing knowledge. Ensure validity and reliability, and discuss implications, limitations, and potential future research directions.

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This article is a step-by-step guide to how to write statement of a problem in research. The research problem will be half-solved by defining it correctly.

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What is a Problem Statement in Research? How to Write It with Examples

The question, “What is a research problem statement?” is usually followed by “Why should I care about problem statements, and how can it affect my research?” In this article, we will try to simplify the concept so that you not only grasp its meaning but internalize its importance and learn how to craft a problem statement.

To put it simply, a “problem statement” as the name implies is any statement that describes a problem in research. When you conduct a study, your aim as a researcher is to answer a query or resolve a problem. This learned information is then typically disseminated by writing a research paper that details the entire process for readers (both for experts and the general public). To better grasp this concept, we’ll try to explain what a research problem statement is from the viewpoint of a reader. For the purpose of clarity and brevity the topic is divided into subsections.

Table of Contents

What is a research problem?

A research problem is a clearly defined issue in a particular field of study that requires additional investigation and study to resolve. Once identified, the problem can be succinctly stated to highlight existing knowledge gaps, the importance of solving the research problem, and the difference between a current situation and an improved state.

But why is it important to have a research problem ready? Keep in mind that a good research problem helps you define the main concepts and terms of research that not only guide your study but help you add to or update existing literature. A research problem statement should ideally be clear, precise, and tangible enough to assist you in developing a framework for establishing the objectives, techniques, and analysis of the research project. Hence, any research project, if it is to be completed successfully,  must start with a well-defined research problem.

What is research problem statement?

A research problem statement in research writing is the most crucial component of any study, which the researcher must perfect for a variety of reasons, including to get funding and boost readership. We’ve already established that a research article’s “research problem” is a sentence that expresses the specific problem that the research is addressing. But first, let’s discuss the significance of the problem statement in research and how to formulate one, using a few examples.

Do you recall the thoughts that went through your head the last time you read a study article? Have you ever tried to quickly scan the introduction or background of the research article to get a sense of the context and the exact issue the authors were attempting to address through the study? Were you stuck attempting to pinpoint the key sentence(s) that encapsulates the background and context of the study, the motivation behind its initial conduct, and its goals? A research problem statement is the descriptive statement which conveys the issue a researcher is trying to address through the study with the aim of informing the reader the context and significance of performing the study at hand . The research problem statement is crucial for researchers to focus on a particular component of a vast field of study, and for readers to comprehend the significance of the research. A well-defined problem allows you to create a framework to develop research objectives or hypotheses.

Now that we are aware of the significance of a problem statement in research, we can concentrate on creating one that is compelling. Writing a problem statement is a fairly simple process; first, you select a broad topic or research area based on your expertise and the resources at your disposal. Then, you narrow it down to a specific research question or problem relevant to that area of research while keeping the gaps in existing knowledge in mind. To give you a step-by-step instruction on how to write a problem statement for research proposal we’ve broken the process down into sections discussing individual aspects.

When to write a problem statement?

The placement of the research problem in the research project is another crucial component when developing a problem statement. Since the research problem statement is fundamental to writing any research project, it is best to write it at the start of the research process, before experimental setup, data collection, and analysis. Without identifying a specific research problem, you don’t know what exactly you are trying to address through the research so it would not be possible for you to set up the right conditions and foundation for the research project.

It is important to describe the research problem statement at the beginning of the research process to guide the research design and methodology. Another benefit of having a clear and defined research problem early on is that it helps researchers stay on track and focus on the problem at hand without deviating into other trajectories. Writing down the research problem statement also ensures that the current study is relevant, fitting, and fills a knowledge gap. However, note that a research statement can be refined or modified as the research advances and new information becomes available. This could be anything from further deconstructing a specific query to posing a fresh query related to the selected topic area. In fact, it is common practice to revise the problem statement in research to maintain specificity and clarity and to allow room to reflect advancement in the research field.

Bonus point:

A well-defined research problem statement that is referenced in the proper position in the research proposal/article is crucial to effectively communicate the goal and significance of the study to all stakeholders concerned with the research. It piques the reader’s interest in the research area, which can advance the work in several ways and open up future partnerships and even employment opportunities for authors.

What does a research problem statement include?

If you have to create a problem statement from scratch, follow the steps/important aspects listed below to create a well-defined research problem statement.

• Describe the wide-ranging research topics

To put things in perspective, it is important to first describe the background of the research issue, which derives from a broad area of study or interest that the research project is concerned with.

• Talk about the research problem/issue

As mentioned earlier, it’s important to state the problem or issues that the research project seeks to address in a clear, succinct manner, preferably in a sentence or two to set the premise of the entire study.

• Emphasize the importance of the issue

After defining the problem your research will try to solve, explain why it’s significant in the larger context and how your study aims to close the knowledge gap between the current state of knowledge and the ideal scenario.

• Outline research questions to address the issue

Give a brief description of the list of research questions your study will use to solve the problem at hand and explain how these will address various components of the problem statement.

• Specify the key goals of the research project

Next, carefully define a set of specific and measurable research objectives that the research project aims to address.

• Describe the experimental setup

Be sure to include a description of the experimental design, including the intended sample (population/size), setting, or context in the problem statement.

• Discuss the theoretical framework

Mention the numerous theoretical ideas and precepts necessary to comprehend the study issue and guide the research activity in this section.

• Include the research methodology

To provide a clear and concise research framework, add a brief description of the research methodologies, including collection and analysis of data, which will be needed to address the research questions and objectives.

Characteristics of a research problem statement

It is essential for a research statement to be clear and concise so that it can guide the development of the research project. A good research statement also helps other stakeholders in comprehending the scope and relevance of the research, which could further lead to opportunities for collaboration or exploration. Here is a list of the key characteristics of a research problem that you should keep in mind when writing an effective research problem statement.

• The “need” to resolve the issue must be present.

It is not enough to choose a problem in your area of interest and expertise; the research problem should have larger implications for a population or a specific subset. Unless the significance of the research problem is elaborated in detail, the research is not deemed significant. Hence, mentioning the “need” to conduct the research in the context of the subject area and how it will create a difference is of utmost importance.

• The research problem needs to be presented rationally and clearly

The research statement must be written at the start and be simple enough for even researchers outside the subject area to understand. The two fundamental elements of a successful research problem statement are clarity and specificity. So, check and rewrite your research problem statement if your peers have trouble understanding it. Aim to write in a straightforward manner while addressing all relevant issues and coherent arguments.

• The research issue is supported by facts and evidence

Before you begin writing the problem statement, you must collect all relevant information available to gain a better understanding of the research topic and existing gaps. A thorough literature search will give you an idea about the current situation and the specific questions you need to ask to close any knowledge gaps. This will also prevent you from asking the questions or identifying issues that have already been addressed. Also, the problem statement should be based on facts and data and should not depend upon hypothetical events.

• The research problem should generate more research questions

Ideally, the research problem should be such that it helps advance research and encourage more questions. The new questions could be specific to the research that highlights different components or aspects of the problem. These questions must also aid in addressing the problem in a more comprehensive manner which provides a solid foundation for the research study.

• The research problem should be tangible

The research issue should be concrete, which means that the study project’s budget and time constraints should be met. The research problem should not call for any actions and experiments that are impractical or outside of your area of competence.

To summarize the main characteristics of a research problem statement, it must:

• Address the knowledge gap
• Be current and relevant
• Aids in advancing the field
• Support future research
• Be tangible and should suit researcher’s time and interest
• Be based on facts and data

  How to write a problem statement in research proposal

The format of a problem statement might vary based on the nature and subject of the research; there is no set format. It is typically written in clear, concise sentences and can range from a few sentences to a few pages. Three considerations must be made when formulating a problem statement for a research proposal:

• Context: The research problem statement needs to be created in the right setting with sufficient background information on the research topic. Context makes it easier to distinguish between the current state and the ideal one in which the issue would not exist. In this section, you can also include instances of any prior attempts and significant roadblocks to solving the problem.
• Relevance: The main goal of the researcher here is to highlight the relevance of the research study. Explain how the research problem affects society or the field of research and, if the study is conducted to mitigate the issue, what an ideal scenario would look like. Who your study will most affect if the issue is resolved and how it can impact future research are other arguments that might be made in this section.
• Strategy: Be sure to mention the goals and objectives of your research, and your approach to solve the problem. The purpose of this section is to lay out the research approach for tackling various parts of the research subject.

Examples of problem statement in research proposal

To put what we learned into practice, let’s look at an example of a problem statement in a research report. Suppose you decide to conduct a study on the topic of attention span of different generations. After a thorough literature search you concluded that the attention span of university students is reducing over generations compared to the previous one, even though there are many websites and apps to simplify tasks and make learning easy . This decrease in attention span is attributed to constant exposure to digital content and multiple screens.

In this scenario, the problem statement could be written as – “The problem this study addresses is the lack of regulative measures to control consumption of digital content by young university students, which negatively impacts their attention span”. The research’s goals and objectives, which may employ strategies to increase university students’ attention span by limiting their internet exposure, can then be described in more detail in subsequent paragraphs.

Frequently asked questions

What is a problem statement.

A problem statement is a succinct and unambiguous overview of the research issue that the study is trying to solve.

What is the difference between problem statement and thesis statement?

A problem statement is different from a thesis statement in that the former highlights the main points of a research paper while emphasizing the hypothesis, whilst the latter identifies the issue for which research is being done.

Why is a problem statement needed in a research proposal?

A problem statement identifies the specific problem that the researchers are trying to solve through their research. It is necessary to establish a framework for the project, focus the researcher’s attention, and inform stakeholders of the study’s importance.

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A Practical Guide to Writing Quantitative and Qualitative Research Questions and Hypotheses in Scholarly Articles

Edward barroga.

1 Department of General Education, Graduate School of Nursing Science, St. Luke’s International University, Tokyo, Japan.

Glafera Janet Matanguihan

2 Department of Biological Sciences, Messiah University, Mechanicsburg, PA, USA.

The development of research questions and the subsequent hypotheses are prerequisites to defining the main research purpose and specific objectives of a study. Consequently, these objectives determine the study design and research outcome. The development of research questions is a process based on knowledge of current trends, cutting-edge studies, and technological advances in the research field. Excellent research questions are focused and require a comprehensive literature search and in-depth understanding of the problem being investigated. Initially, research questions may be written as descriptive questions which could be developed into inferential questions. These questions must be specific and concise to provide a clear foundation for developing hypotheses. Hypotheses are more formal predictions about the research outcomes. These specify the possible results that may or may not be expected regarding the relationship between groups. Thus, research questions and hypotheses clarify the main purpose and specific objectives of the study, which in turn dictate the design of the study, its direction, and outcome. Studies developed from good research questions and hypotheses will have trustworthy outcomes with wide-ranging social and health implications.

INTRODUCTION

Scientific research is usually initiated by posing evidenced-based research questions which are then explicitly restated as hypotheses. 1 , 2 The hypotheses provide directions to guide the study, solutions, explanations, and expected results. 3 , 4 Both research questions and hypotheses are essentially formulated based on conventional theories and real-world processes, which allow the inception of novel studies and the ethical testing of ideas. 5 , 6

It is crucial to have knowledge of both quantitative and qualitative research 2 as both types of research involve writing research questions and hypotheses. 7 However, these crucial elements of research are sometimes overlooked; if not overlooked, then framed without the forethought and meticulous attention it needs. Planning and careful consideration are needed when developing quantitative or qualitative research, particularly when conceptualizing research questions and hypotheses. 4

There is a continuing need to support researchers in the creation of innovative research questions and hypotheses, as well as for journal articles that carefully review these elements. 1 When research questions and hypotheses are not carefully thought of, unethical studies and poor outcomes usually ensue. Carefully formulated research questions and hypotheses define well-founded objectives, which in turn determine the appropriate design, course, and outcome of the study. This article then aims to discuss in detail the various aspects of crafting research questions and hypotheses, with the goal of guiding researchers as they develop their own. Examples from the authors and peer-reviewed scientific articles in the healthcare field are provided to illustrate key points.

DEFINITIONS AND RELATIONSHIP OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

A research question is what a study aims to answer after data analysis and interpretation. The answer is written in length in the discussion section of the paper. Thus, the research question gives a preview of the different parts and variables of the study meant to address the problem posed in the research question. 1 An excellent research question clarifies the research writing while facilitating understanding of the research topic, objective, scope, and limitations of the study. 5

On the other hand, a research hypothesis is an educated statement of an expected outcome. This statement is based on background research and current knowledge. 8 , 9 The research hypothesis makes a specific prediction about a new phenomenon 10 or a formal statement on the expected relationship between an independent variable and a dependent variable. 3 , 11 It provides a tentative answer to the research question to be tested or explored. 4

Hypotheses employ reasoning to predict a theory-based outcome. 10 These can also be developed from theories by focusing on components of theories that have not yet been observed. 10 The validity of hypotheses is often based on the testability of the prediction made in a reproducible experiment. 8

Conversely, hypotheses can also be rephrased as research questions. Several hypotheses based on existing theories and knowledge may be needed to answer a research question. Developing ethical research questions and hypotheses creates a research design that has logical relationships among variables. These relationships serve as a solid foundation for the conduct of the study. 4 , 11 Haphazardly constructed research questions can result in poorly formulated hypotheses and improper study designs, leading to unreliable results. Thus, the formulations of relevant research questions and verifiable hypotheses are crucial when beginning research. 12

CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

Excellent research questions are specific and focused. These integrate collective data and observations to confirm or refute the subsequent hypotheses. Well-constructed hypotheses are based on previous reports and verify the research context. These are realistic, in-depth, sufficiently complex, and reproducible. More importantly, these hypotheses can be addressed and tested. 13

There are several characteristics of well-developed hypotheses. Good hypotheses are 1) empirically testable 7 , 10 , 11 , 13 ; 2) backed by preliminary evidence 9 ; 3) testable by ethical research 7 , 9 ; 4) based on original ideas 9 ; 5) have evidenced-based logical reasoning 10 ; and 6) can be predicted. 11 Good hypotheses can infer ethical and positive implications, indicating the presence of a relationship or effect relevant to the research theme. 7 , 11 These are initially developed from a general theory and branch into specific hypotheses by deductive reasoning. In the absence of a theory to base the hypotheses, inductive reasoning based on specific observations or findings form more general hypotheses. 10

TYPES OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

Research questions and hypotheses are developed according to the type of research, which can be broadly classified into quantitative and qualitative research. We provide a summary of the types of research questions and hypotheses under quantitative and qualitative research categories in Table 1 .

Research questions in quantitative research

In quantitative research, research questions inquire about the relationships among variables being investigated and are usually framed at the start of the study. These are precise and typically linked to the subject population, dependent and independent variables, and research design. 1 Research questions may also attempt to describe the behavior of a population in relation to one or more variables, or describe the characteristics of variables to be measured ( descriptive research questions ). 1 , 5 , 14 These questions may also aim to discover differences between groups within the context of an outcome variable ( comparative research questions ), 1 , 5 , 14 or elucidate trends and interactions among variables ( relationship research questions ). 1 , 5 We provide examples of descriptive, comparative, and relationship research questions in quantitative research in Table 2 .

Hypotheses in quantitative research

In quantitative research, hypotheses predict the expected relationships among variables. 15 Relationships among variables that can be predicted include 1) between a single dependent variable and a single independent variable ( simple hypothesis ) or 2) between two or more independent and dependent variables ( complex hypothesis ). 4 , 11 Hypotheses may also specify the expected direction to be followed and imply an intellectual commitment to a particular outcome ( directional hypothesis ) 4 . On the other hand, hypotheses may not predict the exact direction and are used in the absence of a theory, or when findings contradict previous studies ( non-directional hypothesis ). 4 In addition, hypotheses can 1) define interdependency between variables ( associative hypothesis ), 4 2) propose an effect on the dependent variable from manipulation of the independent variable ( causal hypothesis ), 4 3) state a negative relationship between two variables ( null hypothesis ), 4 , 11 , 15 4) replace the working hypothesis if rejected ( alternative hypothesis ), 15 explain the relationship of phenomena to possibly generate a theory ( working hypothesis ), 11 5) involve quantifiable variables that can be tested statistically ( statistical hypothesis ), 11 6) or express a relationship whose interlinks can be verified logically ( logical hypothesis ). 11 We provide examples of simple, complex, directional, non-directional, associative, causal, null, alternative, working, statistical, and logical hypotheses in quantitative research, as well as the definition of quantitative hypothesis-testing research in Table 3 .

Research questions in qualitative research

Unlike research questions in quantitative research, research questions in qualitative research are usually continuously reviewed and reformulated. The central question and associated subquestions are stated more than the hypotheses. 15 The central question broadly explores a complex set of factors surrounding the central phenomenon, aiming to present the varied perspectives of participants. 15

There are varied goals for which qualitative research questions are developed. These questions can function in several ways, such as to 1) identify and describe existing conditions ( contextual research question s); 2) describe a phenomenon ( descriptive research questions ); 3) assess the effectiveness of existing methods, protocols, theories, or procedures ( evaluation research questions ); 4) examine a phenomenon or analyze the reasons or relationships between subjects or phenomena ( explanatory research questions ); or 5) focus on unknown aspects of a particular topic ( exploratory research questions ). 5 In addition, some qualitative research questions provide new ideas for the development of theories and actions ( generative research questions ) or advance specific ideologies of a position ( ideological research questions ). 1 Other qualitative research questions may build on a body of existing literature and become working guidelines ( ethnographic research questions ). Research questions may also be broadly stated without specific reference to the existing literature or a typology of questions ( phenomenological research questions ), may be directed towards generating a theory of some process ( grounded theory questions ), or may address a description of the case and the emerging themes ( qualitative case study questions ). 15 We provide examples of contextual, descriptive, evaluation, explanatory, exploratory, generative, ideological, ethnographic, phenomenological, grounded theory, and qualitative case study research questions in qualitative research in Table 4 , and the definition of qualitative hypothesis-generating research in Table 5 .

Qualitative studies usually pose at least one central research question and several subquestions starting with How or What . These research questions use exploratory verbs such as explore or describe . These also focus on one central phenomenon of interest, and may mention the participants and research site. 15

Hypotheses in qualitative research

Hypotheses in qualitative research are stated in the form of a clear statement concerning the problem to be investigated. Unlike in quantitative research where hypotheses are usually developed to be tested, qualitative research can lead to both hypothesis-testing and hypothesis-generating outcomes. 2 When studies require both quantitative and qualitative research questions, this suggests an integrative process between both research methods wherein a single mixed-methods research question can be developed. 1

FRAMEWORKS FOR DEVELOPING RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

Research questions followed by hypotheses should be developed before the start of the study. 1 , 12 , 14 It is crucial to develop feasible research questions on a topic that is interesting to both the researcher and the scientific community. This can be achieved by a meticulous review of previous and current studies to establish a novel topic. Specific areas are subsequently focused on to generate ethical research questions. The relevance of the research questions is evaluated in terms of clarity of the resulting data, specificity of the methodology, objectivity of the outcome, depth of the research, and impact of the study. 1 , 5 These aspects constitute the FINER criteria (i.e., Feasible, Interesting, Novel, Ethical, and Relevant). 1 Clarity and effectiveness are achieved if research questions meet the FINER criteria. In addition to the FINER criteria, Ratan et al. described focus, complexity, novelty, feasibility, and measurability for evaluating the effectiveness of research questions. 14

The PICOT and PEO frameworks are also used when developing research questions. 1 The following elements are addressed in these frameworks, PICOT: P-population/patients/problem, I-intervention or indicator being studied, C-comparison group, O-outcome of interest, and T-timeframe of the study; PEO: P-population being studied, E-exposure to preexisting conditions, and O-outcome of interest. 1 Research questions are also considered good if these meet the “FINERMAPS” framework: Feasible, Interesting, Novel, Ethical, Relevant, Manageable, Appropriate, Potential value/publishable, and Systematic. 14

As we indicated earlier, research questions and hypotheses that are not carefully formulated result in unethical studies or poor outcomes. To illustrate this, we provide some examples of ambiguous research question and hypotheses that result in unclear and weak research objectives in quantitative research ( Table 6 ) 16 and qualitative research ( Table 7 ) 17 , and how to transform these ambiguous research question(s) and hypothesis(es) into clear and good statements.

a These statements were composed for comparison and illustrative purposes only.

b These statements are direct quotes from Higashihara and Horiuchi. 16

a This statement is a direct quote from Shimoda et al. 17

The other statements were composed for comparison and illustrative purposes only.

CONSTRUCTING RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

To construct effective research questions and hypotheses, it is very important to 1) clarify the background and 2) identify the research problem at the outset of the research, within a specific timeframe. 9 Then, 3) review or conduct preliminary research to collect all available knowledge about the possible research questions by studying theories and previous studies. 18 Afterwards, 4) construct research questions to investigate the research problem. Identify variables to be accessed from the research questions 4 and make operational definitions of constructs from the research problem and questions. Thereafter, 5) construct specific deductive or inductive predictions in the form of hypotheses. 4 Finally, 6) state the study aims . This general flow for constructing effective research questions and hypotheses prior to conducting research is shown in Fig. 1 .

Research questions are used more frequently in qualitative research than objectives or hypotheses. 3 These questions seek to discover, understand, explore or describe experiences by asking “What” or “How.” The questions are open-ended to elicit a description rather than to relate variables or compare groups. The questions are continually reviewed, reformulated, and changed during the qualitative study. 3 Research questions are also used more frequently in survey projects than hypotheses in experiments in quantitative research to compare variables and their relationships.

Hypotheses are constructed based on the variables identified and as an if-then statement, following the template, ‘If a specific action is taken, then a certain outcome is expected.’ At this stage, some ideas regarding expectations from the research to be conducted must be drawn. 18 Then, the variables to be manipulated (independent) and influenced (dependent) are defined. 4 Thereafter, the hypothesis is stated and refined, and reproducible data tailored to the hypothesis are identified, collected, and analyzed. 4 The hypotheses must be testable and specific, 18 and should describe the variables and their relationships, the specific group being studied, and the predicted research outcome. 18 Hypotheses construction involves a testable proposition to be deduced from theory, and independent and dependent variables to be separated and measured separately. 3 Therefore, good hypotheses must be based on good research questions constructed at the start of a study or trial. 12

In summary, research questions are constructed after establishing the background of the study. Hypotheses are then developed based on the research questions. Thus, it is crucial to have excellent research questions to generate superior hypotheses. In turn, these would determine the research objectives and the design of the study, and ultimately, the outcome of the research. 12 Algorithms for building research questions and hypotheses are shown in Fig. 2 for quantitative research and in Fig. 3 for qualitative research.

EXAMPLES OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS FROM PUBLISHED ARTICLES

• EXAMPLE 1. Descriptive research question (quantitative research)
• - Presents research variables to be assessed (distinct phenotypes and subphenotypes)
• “BACKGROUND: Since COVID-19 was identified, its clinical and biological heterogeneity has been recognized. Identifying COVID-19 phenotypes might help guide basic, clinical, and translational research efforts.
• RESEARCH QUESTION: Does the clinical spectrum of patients with COVID-19 contain distinct phenotypes and subphenotypes? ” 19
• EXAMPLE 2. Relationship research question (quantitative research)
• - Shows interactions between dependent variable (static postural control) and independent variable (peripheral visual field loss)
• “Background: Integration of visual, vestibular, and proprioceptive sensations contributes to postural control. People with peripheral visual field loss have serious postural instability. However, the directional specificity of postural stability and sensory reweighting caused by gradual peripheral visual field loss remain unclear.
• Research question: What are the effects of peripheral visual field loss on static postural control ?” 20
• EXAMPLE 3. Comparative research question (quantitative research)
• - Clarifies the difference among groups with an outcome variable (patients enrolled in COMPERA with moderate PH or severe PH in COPD) and another group without the outcome variable (patients with idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension (IPAH))
• “BACKGROUND: Pulmonary hypertension (PH) in COPD is a poorly investigated clinical condition.
• RESEARCH QUESTION: Which factors determine the outcome of PH in COPD?
• STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS: We analyzed the characteristics and outcome of patients enrolled in the Comparative, Prospective Registry of Newly Initiated Therapies for Pulmonary Hypertension (COMPERA) with moderate or severe PH in COPD as defined during the 6th PH World Symposium who received medical therapy for PH and compared them with patients with idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension (IPAH) .” 21
• EXAMPLE 4. Exploratory research question (qualitative research)
• - Explores areas that have not been fully investigated (perspectives of families and children who receive care in clinic-based child obesity treatment) to have a deeper understanding of the research problem
• “Problem: Interventions for children with obesity lead to only modest improvements in BMI and long-term outcomes, and data are limited on the perspectives of families of children with obesity in clinic-based treatment. This scoping review seeks to answer the question: What is known about the perspectives of families and children who receive care in clinic-based child obesity treatment? This review aims to explore the scope of perspectives reported by families of children with obesity who have received individualized outpatient clinic-based obesity treatment.” 22
• EXAMPLE 5. Relationship research question (quantitative research)
• - Defines interactions between dependent variable (use of ankle strategies) and independent variable (changes in muscle tone)
• “Background: To maintain an upright standing posture against external disturbances, the human body mainly employs two types of postural control strategies: “ankle strategy” and “hip strategy.” While it has been reported that the magnitude of the disturbance alters the use of postural control strategies, it has not been elucidated how the level of muscle tone, one of the crucial parameters of bodily function, determines the use of each strategy. We have previously confirmed using forward dynamics simulations of human musculoskeletal models that an increased muscle tone promotes the use of ankle strategies. The objective of the present study was to experimentally evaluate a hypothesis: an increased muscle tone promotes the use of ankle strategies. Research question: Do changes in the muscle tone affect the use of ankle strategies ?” 23

EXAMPLES OF HYPOTHESES IN PUBLISHED ARTICLES

• EXAMPLE 1. Working hypothesis (quantitative research)
• - A hypothesis that is initially accepted for further research to produce a feasible theory
• “As fever may have benefit in shortening the duration of viral illness, it is plausible to hypothesize that the antipyretic efficacy of ibuprofen may be hindering the benefits of a fever response when taken during the early stages of COVID-19 illness .” 24
• “In conclusion, it is plausible to hypothesize that the antipyretic efficacy of ibuprofen may be hindering the benefits of a fever response . The difference in perceived safety of these agents in COVID-19 illness could be related to the more potent efficacy to reduce fever with ibuprofen compared to acetaminophen. Compelling data on the benefit of fever warrant further research and review to determine when to treat or withhold ibuprofen for early stage fever for COVID-19 and other related viral illnesses .” 24
• EXAMPLE 2. Exploratory hypothesis (qualitative research)
• - Explores particular areas deeper to clarify subjective experience and develop a formal hypothesis potentially testable in a future quantitative approach
• “We hypothesized that when thinking about a past experience of help-seeking, a self distancing prompt would cause increased help-seeking intentions and more favorable help-seeking outcome expectations .” 25
• “Conclusion
• Although a priori hypotheses were not supported, further research is warranted as results indicate the potential for using self-distancing approaches to increasing help-seeking among some people with depressive symptomatology.” 25
• EXAMPLE 3. Hypothesis-generating research to establish a framework for hypothesis testing (qualitative research)
• “We hypothesize that compassionate care is beneficial for patients (better outcomes), healthcare systems and payers (lower costs), and healthcare providers (lower burnout). ” 26
• Compassionomics is the branch of knowledge and scientific study of the effects of compassionate healthcare. Our main hypotheses are that compassionate healthcare is beneficial for (1) patients, by improving clinical outcomes, (2) healthcare systems and payers, by supporting financial sustainability, and (3) HCPs, by lowering burnout and promoting resilience and well-being. The purpose of this paper is to establish a scientific framework for testing the hypotheses above . If these hypotheses are confirmed through rigorous research, compassionomics will belong in the science of evidence-based medicine, with major implications for all healthcare domains.” 26
• EXAMPLE 4. Statistical hypothesis (quantitative research)
• - An assumption is made about the relationship among several population characteristics ( gender differences in sociodemographic and clinical characteristics of adults with ADHD ). Validity is tested by statistical experiment or analysis ( chi-square test, Students t-test, and logistic regression analysis)
• “Our research investigated gender differences in sociodemographic and clinical characteristics of adults with ADHD in a Japanese clinical sample. Due to unique Japanese cultural ideals and expectations of women's behavior that are in opposition to ADHD symptoms, we hypothesized that women with ADHD experience more difficulties and present more dysfunctions than men . We tested the following hypotheses: first, women with ADHD have more comorbidities than men with ADHD; second, women with ADHD experience more social hardships than men, such as having less full-time employment and being more likely to be divorced.” 27
• “Statistical Analysis
• ( text omitted ) Between-gender comparisons were made using the chi-squared test for categorical variables and Students t-test for continuous variables…( text omitted ). A logistic regression analysis was performed for employment status, marital status, and comorbidity to evaluate the independent effects of gender on these dependent variables.” 27

EXAMPLES OF HYPOTHESIS AS WRITTEN IN PUBLISHED ARTICLES IN RELATION TO OTHER PARTS

• EXAMPLE 1. Background, hypotheses, and aims are provided
• “Pregnant women need skilled care during pregnancy and childbirth, but that skilled care is often delayed in some countries …( text omitted ). The focused antenatal care (FANC) model of WHO recommends that nurses provide information or counseling to all pregnant women …( text omitted ). Job aids are visual support materials that provide the right kind of information using graphics and words in a simple and yet effective manner. When nurses are not highly trained or have many work details to attend to, these job aids can serve as a content reminder for the nurses and can be used for educating their patients (Jennings, Yebadokpo, Affo, & Agbogbe, 2010) ( text omitted ). Importantly, additional evidence is needed to confirm how job aids can further improve the quality of ANC counseling by health workers in maternal care …( text omitted )” 28
• “ This has led us to hypothesize that the quality of ANC counseling would be better if supported by job aids. Consequently, a better quality of ANC counseling is expected to produce higher levels of awareness concerning the danger signs of pregnancy and a more favorable impression of the caring behavior of nurses .” 28
• “This study aimed to examine the differences in the responses of pregnant women to a job aid-supported intervention during ANC visit in terms of 1) their understanding of the danger signs of pregnancy and 2) their impression of the caring behaviors of nurses to pregnant women in rural Tanzania.” 28
• EXAMPLE 2. Background, hypotheses, and aims are provided
• “We conducted a two-arm randomized controlled trial (RCT) to evaluate and compare changes in salivary cortisol and oxytocin levels of first-time pregnant women between experimental and control groups. The women in the experimental group touched and held an infant for 30 min (experimental intervention protocol), whereas those in the control group watched a DVD movie of an infant (control intervention protocol). The primary outcome was salivary cortisol level and the secondary outcome was salivary oxytocin level.” 29
• “ We hypothesize that at 30 min after touching and holding an infant, the salivary cortisol level will significantly decrease and the salivary oxytocin level will increase in the experimental group compared with the control group .” 29
• EXAMPLE 3. Background, aim, and hypothesis are provided
• “In countries where the maternal mortality ratio remains high, antenatal education to increase Birth Preparedness and Complication Readiness (BPCR) is considered one of the top priorities [1]. BPCR includes birth plans during the antenatal period, such as the birthplace, birth attendant, transportation, health facility for complications, expenses, and birth materials, as well as family coordination to achieve such birth plans. In Tanzania, although increasing, only about half of all pregnant women attend an antenatal clinic more than four times [4]. Moreover, the information provided during antenatal care (ANC) is insufficient. In the resource-poor settings, antenatal group education is a potential approach because of the limited time for individual counseling at antenatal clinics.” 30
• “This study aimed to evaluate an antenatal group education program among pregnant women and their families with respect to birth-preparedness and maternal and infant outcomes in rural villages of Tanzania.” 30
• “ The study hypothesis was if Tanzanian pregnant women and their families received a family-oriented antenatal group education, they would (1) have a higher level of BPCR, (2) attend antenatal clinic four or more times, (3) give birth in a health facility, (4) have less complications of women at birth, and (5) have less complications and deaths of infants than those who did not receive the education .” 30

Research questions and hypotheses are crucial components to any type of research, whether quantitative or qualitative. These questions should be developed at the very beginning of the study. Excellent research questions lead to superior hypotheses, which, like a compass, set the direction of research, and can often determine the successful conduct of the study. Many research studies have floundered because the development of research questions and subsequent hypotheses was not given the thought and meticulous attention needed. The development of research questions and hypotheses is an iterative process based on extensive knowledge of the literature and insightful grasp of the knowledge gap. Focused, concise, and specific research questions provide a strong foundation for constructing hypotheses which serve as formal predictions about the research outcomes. Research questions and hypotheses are crucial elements of research that should not be overlooked. They should be carefully thought of and constructed when planning research. This avoids unethical studies and poor outcomes by defining well-founded objectives that determine the design, course, and outcome of the study.

Disclosure: The authors have no potential conflicts of interest to disclose.

Author Contributions:

• Conceptualization: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.
• Methodology: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.
• Writing - original draft: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.
• Writing - review & editing: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.

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• How to Define a Research Problem | Ideas & Examples

How to Define a Research Problem | Ideas & Examples

Published on 8 November 2022 by Shona McCombes and Tegan George.

A research problem is a specific issue or gap in existing knowledge that you aim to address in your research. You may choose to look for practical problems aimed at contributing to change, or theoretical problems aimed at expanding knowledge.

Some research will do both of these things, but usually the research problem focuses on one or the other. The type of research problem you choose depends on your broad topic of interest and the type of research you think will fit best.

This article helps you identify and refine a research problem. When writing your research proposal or introduction , formulate it as a problem statement and/or research questions .

Table of contents

Why is the research problem important, step 1: identify a broad problem area, step 2: learn more about the problem, frequently asked questions about research problems.

Having an interesting topic isn’t a strong enough basis for academic research. Without a well-defined research problem, you are likely to end up with an unfocused and unmanageable project.

You might end up repeating what other people have already said, trying to say too much, or doing research without a clear purpose and justification. You need a clear problem in order to do research that contributes new and relevant insights.

Whether you’re planning your thesis , starting a research paper , or writing a research proposal , the research problem is the first step towards knowing exactly what you’ll do and why.

Prevent plagiarism, run a free check.

As you read about your topic, look for under-explored aspects or areas of concern, conflict, or controversy. Your goal is to find a gap that your research project can fill.

Practical research problems

If you are doing practical research, you can identify a problem by reading reports, following up on previous research, or talking to people who work in the relevant field or organisation. You might look for:

• Issues with performance or efficiency
• Processes that could be improved
• Areas of concern among practitioners
• Difficulties faced by specific groups of people

Examples of practical research problems

Voter turnout in New England has been decreasing, in contrast to the rest of the country.

The HR department of a local chain of restaurants has a high staff turnover rate.

A non-profit organisation faces a funding gap that means some of its programs will have to be cut.

Theoretical research problems

If you are doing theoretical research, you can identify a research problem by reading existing research, theory, and debates on your topic to find a gap in what is currently known about it. You might look for:

• A phenomenon or context that has not been closely studied
• A contradiction between two or more perspectives
• A situation or relationship that is not well understood
• A troubling question that has yet to be resolved

Examples of theoretical research problems

The effects of long-term Vitamin D deficiency on cardiovascular health are not well understood.

The relationship between gender, race, and income inequality has yet to be closely studied in the context of the millennial gig economy.

Historians of Scottish nationalism disagree about the role of the British Empire in the development of Scotland’s national identity.

Next, you have to find out what is already known about the problem, and pinpoint the exact aspect that your research will address.

Context and background

• Who does the problem affect?
• Is it a newly-discovered problem, or a well-established one?
• What research has already been done?
• What, if any, solutions have been proposed?
• What are the current debates about the problem? What is missing from these debates?

Specificity and relevance

• What particular place, time, and/or group of people will you focus on?
• What aspects will you not be able to tackle?
• What will the consequences be if the problem is not resolved?

Example of a specific research problem

A local non-profit organisation focused on alleviating food insecurity has always fundraised from its existing support base. It lacks understanding of how best to target potential new donors. To be able to continue its work, the organisation requires research into more effective fundraising strategies.

Once you have narrowed down your research problem, the next step is to formulate a problem statement , as well as your research questions or hypotheses .

Once you’ve decided on your research objectives , you need to explain them in your paper, at the end of your problem statement.

Keep your research objectives clear and concise, and use appropriate verbs to accurately convey the work that you will carry out for each one.

I will compare …

The way you present your research problem in your introduction varies depending on the nature of your research paper . A research paper that presents a sustained argument will usually encapsulate this argument in a thesis statement .

A research paper designed to present the results of empirical research tends to present a research question that it seeks to answer. It may also include a hypothesis – a prediction that will be confirmed or disproved by your research.

Research objectives describe what you intend your research project to accomplish.

They summarise the approach and purpose of the project and help to focus your research.

Your objectives should appear in the introduction of your research paper , at the end of your problem statement .

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Organizing Academic Research Papers: The Research Problem/Question

• Purpose of Guide
• Design Flaws to Avoid
• Glossary of Research Terms
• Narrowing a Topic Idea
• Broadening a Topic Idea
• Extending the Timeliness of a Topic Idea
• Academic Writing Style
• Choosing a Title
• Making an Outline
• Paragraph Development
• Executive Summary
• Background Information
• The Research Problem/Question
• Theoretical Framework
• Citation Tracking
• Content Alert Services
• Evaluating Sources
• Primary Sources
• Secondary Sources
• Tertiary Sources
• What Is Scholarly vs. Popular?
• Qualitative Methods
• Quantitative Methods
• Using Non-Textual Elements
• Limitations of the Study
• Common Grammar Mistakes
• Avoiding Plagiarism
• Footnotes or Endnotes?
• Further Readings
• Annotated Bibliography
• Dealing with Nervousness
• Using Visual Aids
• Grading Someone Else's Paper
• How to Manage Group Projects
• Multiple Book Review Essay
• Reviewing Collected Essays
• About Informed Consent
• Writing Field Notes
• Writing a Policy Memo
• Writing a Research Proposal
• Acknowledgements

A research problem is a statement about an area of concern, a condition to be improved, a difficulty to be eliminated, or a troubling question that exists in scholarly literature, in theory, or in practice that points to the need for meaningful understanding and deliberate investigation. In some social science disciplines the research problem is typically posed in the form of a question. A research problem does not state how to do something, offer a vague or broad proposition, or present a value question.

Importance of...

The purpose of a problem statement is to:

• Introduce the reader to the importance of the topic being studied . The reader is oriented to the significance of the study and the research questions or hypotheses to follow.
• Places the problem into a particular context that defines the parameters of what is to be investigated.
• Provides the framework for reporting the results and indicates what is probably necessary to conduct the study and explain how the findings will present this information.

In the social sciences, the research problem establishes the means by which you must answer the "So What?" question. The "So What?" question refers to a research problem surviving the relevancy test [the quality of a measurement procedure that provides repeatability and accuracy]. Note that answering the "So What" question requires a commitment on your part to not only show that you have researched the material, but that you have thought about its significance.

To survive the "So What" question, problem statements should possess the following attributes:

• Clarity and precision [a well-written statement does not make sweeping generalizations and irresponsible statements],
• Identification of what would be studied, while avoiding the use of value-laden words and terms,
• Identification of an overarching question and key factors or variables,
• Identification of key concepts and terms,
• Articulation of the study's boundaries or parameters,
• Some generalizability in regards to applicability and bringing results into general use,
• Conveyance of the study's importance, benefits, and justification [regardless of the type of research, it is important to address the “so what” question by demonstrating that the research is not trivial],
• Does not have unnecessary jargon; and,
• Conveyance of more than the mere gathering of descriptive data providing only a snapshot of the issue or phenomenon under investigation.

Castellanos, Susie. Critical Writing and Thinking . The Writing Center. Dean of the College. Brown University; Ellis, Timothy J. and Yair Levy Nova Framework of Problem-Based Research: A Guide for Novice Researchers on the Development of a Research-Worthy Problem. Informing Science: the International Journal of an Emerging Transdiscipline 11 (2008); Thesis and Purpose Statements . The Writer’s Handbook. Writing Center. University of Wisconsin, Madison; Thesis Statements . The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Tips and Examples for Writing Thesis Statements . The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University.  

Structure and Writing Style

I.  Types and Content

There are four general conceptualizations of a research problem in the social sciences:

• Casuist Research Problem -- this type of problem relates to the determination of right and wrong in questions of conduct or conscience by analyzing moral dilemmas through the application of general rules and the careful distinction of special cases.
• Difference Research Problem -- typically asks the question, “Is there a difference between two or more groups or treatments?” This type of problem statement is used when the researcher compares or contrasts two or more phenomena.
• Descriptive Research Problem -- typically asks the question, "what is...?" with the underlying purpose to describe a situation, state, or existence of a specific phenomenon.
• Relational Research Problem -- suggests a relationship of some sort between two or more variables to be investigated. The underlying purpose is to investigate qualities/characteristics that are connected in some way.

A problem statement in the social sciences should contain :

• A lead-in that helps ensure the reader will maintain interest over the study
• A declaration of originality [e.g., mentioning a knowledge void, which would be supported by the literature review]
• An indication of the central focus of the study, and
• An explanation of the study's significance or the benefits to be derived from an investigating the problem.

II.  Sources of Problems for Investigation

Identifying a problem to study can be challenging, not because there is a lack of issues that could be investigated, but due to pursuing a goal of formulating a socially relevant and researchable problem statement that is unique and does not simply duplicate the work of others. To facilitate how you might select a problem from which to build a research study, consider these three broad sources of inspiration:

Deductions from Theory This relates to deductions made from social philosophy or generalizations embodied in life in society that the researcher is familiar with. These deductions from human behavior are then fitted within an empirical frame of reference through research. From a theory, the research can formulate a research problem or hypothesis stating the expected findings in certain empirical situations. The research asks the question: “What relationship between variables will be observed if theory aptly summarizes the state of affairs?” One can then design and carry out a systematic investigation to assess whether empirical data confirm or reject the hypothesis and hence the theory.

Interdisciplinary Perspectives Identifying a problem that forms the basis for a research study can come from academic movements and scholarship originating in disciplines outside of your primary area of study. A review of pertinent literature should include examining research from related disciplines, which can expose you to new avenues of exploration and analysis. An interdisciplinary approach to selecting a research problem offers an opportunity to construct a more comprehensive understanding of a very complex issue than any single discipline might provide.

Interviewing Practitioners The identification of research problems about particular topics can arise from formal or informal discussions with practitioners who provide insight into new directions for future research and how to make research findings increasingly relevant to practice. Discussions with experts in the field, such as, teachers, social workers, health care providers, etc., offers the chance to identify practical, “real worl” problems that may be understudied or ignored within academic circles. This approach also provides some practical knowledge which may help in the process of designing and conducting your study.

Personal Experience Your everyday experiences can give rise to worthwhile problems for investigation. Think critically about your own experiences and/or frustrations with an issue facing society, your community, or in your neighborhood. This can be derived, for example, from deliberate observations of certain relationships for which there is no clear explanation or witnessing an event that appears harmful to a person or group or that is out of the ordinary.

Relevant Literature The selection of a research problem can often be derived from an extensive and thorough review of pertinent research associated with your overall area of interest. This may reveal where gaps remain in our understanding of a topic. Research may be conducted to: 1) fill such gaps in knowledge; 2) evaluate if the methodologies employed in prior studies can be adapted to solve other problems; or, 3) determine if a similar study could be conducted in a different subject area or applied to different study sample [i.e., different groups of people]. Also, authors frequently conclude their studies by noting implications for further research; this can also be a valuable source of problems to investigate.

III.  What Makes a Good Research Statement?

A good problem statement begins by introducing the broad area in which your research is centered and then gradually leads the reader to the more narrow questions you are posing. The statement need not be lengthy but a good research problem should incorporate the following features:

Compelling topic Simple curiosity is not a good enough reason to pursue a research study. The problem that you choose to explore must be important to you and to a larger community you share. The problem chosen must be one that motivates you to address it. Supports multiple perspectives The problem most be phrased in a way that avoids dichotomies and instead supports the generation and exploration of multiple perspectives. A general rule of thumb is that a good research problem is one that would generate a variety of viewpoints from a composite audience made up of reasonable people. Researchable It seems a bit obvious, but you don't want to find yourself in the midst of investigating a complex  research project and realize that you don't have much to draw on for your research. Choose research problems that can be supported by the resources available to you. Not sure? Seek out help  from a librarian!

NOTE:   Do not confuse a research problem with a research topic. A topic is something to read and obtain information about whereas a problem is something to solve or framed as a question that must be answered.

IV.  Mistakes to Avoid

Beware of circular reasoning . Don’t state that the research problem as simply the absence of the thing you are suggesting. For example, if you propose, "The problem in this community is that it has no hospital."

This only leads to a research problem where:

• The need is for a hospital
• The objective is to create a hospital
• The method is to plan for building a hospital, and
• The evaluation is to measure if there is a hospital or not.

This is an example of a research problem that fails the "so what?" test because it does not reveal the relevance of why you are investigating the problem of having no hospital in the community [e.g., there's a hospital in the community ten miles away] and because the research problem does not elucidate the significance of why one should study the fact that no hospital exists in the community [e.g., that hospital in the community ten miles away has no emergency room].

Choosing and Refining Topics . Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Ellis, Timothy J. and Yair Levy Nova Framework of Problem-Based Research: A Guide for Novice Researchers on the Development of a Research-Worthy Problem. Informing Science: the International Journal of an Emerging Transdiscipline 11 (2008); How to Write a Research Question . The Writing Center. George Mason University; Invention: Developing a Thesis Statement . The Reading/Writing Center. Hunter College; Problem Statements PowerPoint Presentation . The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Procter, Margaret. Using Thesis Statements . University College Writing Centre. University of Toronto; Trochim, William M.K. Problem Formulation . Research Methods Knowledge Base. 2006; Thesis and Purpose Statements . The Writer’s Handbook. Writing Center. University of Wisconsin, Madison; Thesis Statements . The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Tips and Examples for Writing Thesis Statements . The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University.

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Developing Surveys on Questionable Research Practices: Four Challenging Design Problems

• Open access
• Published: 02 September 2024

Cite this article

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• Christian Berggren   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-4233-5138 1 ,
• Bengt Gerdin   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-8360-5387 2 &
• Solmaz Filiz Karabag   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-3863-1073 1 , 3  

2 Altmetric

The exposure of scientific scandals and the increase of dubious research practices have generated a stream of studies on Questionable Research Practices (QRPs), such as failure to acknowledge co-authors, selective presentation of findings, or removal of data not supporting desired outcomes. In contrast to high-profile fraud cases, QRPs can be investigated using quantitative, survey-based methods. However, several design issues remain to be solved. This paper starts with a review of four problems in the QRP research: the problem of precision and prevalence, the problem of social desirability bias, the problem of incomplete coverage, and the problem of controversiality, sensitivity and missing responses. Various ways to handle these problems are discussed based on a case study of the design of a large, cross-field QRP survey in the social and medical sciences in Sweden. The paper describes the key steps in the design process, including technical and cognitive testing and repeated test versions to arrive at reliable survey items on the prevalence of QRPs and hypothesized associated factors in the organizational and normative environments. Partial solutions to the four problems are assessed, unresolved issues are discussed, and tradeoffs that resist simple solutions are articulated. The paper ends with a call for systematic comparisons of survey designs and item quality to build a much-needed cumulative knowledge trajectory in the field of integrity studies.

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Introduction

The public revelations of research fraud and non-replicable findings (Berggren & Karabag, 2019 ; Levelt et al., 2012 ; Nosek et al., 2022 ) have created a lively interest in studying research integrity. Most studies in this field tend to focus on questionable research practices, QRPs, rather than blatant fraud, which is less common and hard to study with rigorous methods (Butler et al., 2017 ). Despite the significant contributions of this research about the incidence of QRPs in various countries and contexts, several issues still need to be addressed regarding the challenges of designing precise and valid survey instruments and achieving satisfactory response rates in this sensitive area. While studies in management (Hinkin, 1998 ; Lietz, 2010 ), behavioral sciences, psychology (Breakwell et al., 2020 ), sociology (Brenner, 2020 ), and education (Hill et al., 2022 ) have provided guidelines to design surveys, they rarely discuss how to develop, test, and use surveys targeting sensitive and controversial issues such as organizational or individual corruption (Lin & Yu, 2020 ), fraud (Lawlor et al., 2021 ), and misconduct. The aim of this study is to contribute to a systematic discussion of challenges facing survey designers in these areas and, by way of a detailed case study, highlight alternative ways to increase participation and reliability of surveys focusing on questionable research practices, scientific norms, and organizational climate.

The following section starts with a literature-based review of four important problems:

the lack of conceptual consensus and precise measurements,

the problem of social desirability bias.

the difficulty of covering both quantitative and qualitative research fields.

the problem of controversiality and sensitivity.

Section 3 presents an in-depth case study of developing and implementing a survey on QRPs in the social and medical sciences in Sweden 2018–2021, designed to target these problems. Its first results were presented in this journal (Karabag et al., 2024 ). The section also describes the development process and the survey content and highlights the general design challenges. Section 4 returns to the four problems by discussing partial solutions, difficult tradeoffs, and remaining issues.

Four Design Problems in the Study of Questionable Research Practices

Extant QRP studies have generated an impressive body of knowledge regarding the occurrence and complexities of questionable practices, their increasing trend in several academic fields, and the difficulty of mitigating them with conventional interventions such as ethics courses and espousal of integrity policies (Gopalakrishna et al., 2022 ; Karabag et al., 2024 ; Necker, 2014 ). However, investigations on the prevalence of QRPs have so far lacked systematic problem analysis. Below, four main problems are discussed.

The Problem of Conceptual Clarity and Measurement Precision

Studies of QRP prevalence in the literature exhibit high levels of questionable behaviors but also considerable variation in their estimates. This is illustrated in the examples below:

“42% hade collected more data after inspecting whether results were statistically significant… and 51% had reported an unexpected finding as though it had been hypothesized from the start (HARKing)”( Fraser et al., 2018 , p. 1) , “51 , 3% of respondents engaging frequently in at least one QRP” ( Gopalakrishna et al., 2022 , p. 1) , “…one third of the researchers stated that for the express purpose of supporting hypotheses with statistical significance they engaged in post hoc exclusion of data” ( Banks et al., 2016 , p. 10).

On a general level, QRPs constitute deviations from the responsible conduct of research, that are not severe enough to be defined as fraud and fabrication (Steneck, 2006 ). Within these borders, there is no conceptual consensus regarding specific forms of QRPs (Bruton et al., 2020 ; Xie et al., 2021 ). This has resulted in a considerable variation in prevalence estimates (Agnoli et al., 2017 ; Artino et al. Jr, 2019 ; Fiedler & Schwarz, 2016 ). Many studies emphasize the role of intentionality, implying a purpose to support a specific assertion with biased evidence (Banks et al., 2016 ). This tends to be backed by reports of malpractices in quantitative research, such as p-hacking or HARKing, where unexpected findings or results from an exploratory analysis are reported as having been predicted from the start (Andrade, 2021 ). Other QRP studies, however, build on another, often implicit conceptual definition and include practices that could instead be defined as sloppy or under-resourced research, e.g. insufficient attention to equipment, deficient supervision of junior co-workers, inadequate note-keeping of the research process, or use of inappropriate research designs (Gopalakrishna et al., 2022 ). Alternatively, those studies include behaviors such as “Fashion-determined choice of research topic”, “Instrumental and marketable approach”, and “Overselling methods, data or results” (Ravn & Sørensen, 2021 , p. 30; Vermeulen & Hartmann, 2015 ) which may be opportunistic or survivalist but not necessarily involve intentions to mislead.

To shed light on the prevalence of QRPs in different environments, the first step is to conceptualize and delimit the practices to be considered. The next step is to operationalize the conceptual approach into useful indicators and, if needed, to reformulate and reword the indicators into unambiguous, easily understood items (Hinkin, 1995 , 1998 ). The importance of careful item design has been demonstrated by Fiedler and Schwarz ( 2016 ). They show how the perceived QRP prevalence changes by adding specifications to well-known QRP items. Such specifications include: “ failing to report all dependent measures that are relevant for a finding ”, “ selectively reporting studies related to a specific finding that ‘’worked’ ” (Fiedler & Schwarz, 2016 , p. 46, italics in original ), or “collecting more data after seeing whether results were significant in order to render non-significant results significant ” (Fiedler & Schwarz, 2016 , p. 49, italics in original ). These specifications demonstrate the importance of precision in item design, the need for item tests before applications in a large-scale survey, and as the case study in Sect. 3 indicates, the value of statistically analyzing the selected items post-implementation.

The Problem of Social Desirability

Case studies of publicly exposed scientific misconduct have the advantage of explicitness and possible triangulation of sources (Berggren & Karabag, 2019 ; Huistra & Paul, 2022 ). Opinions may be contradictory, but researchers/investigators may often approach a variety of stakeholders and compare oral statements with documents and other sources (Berggren & Karabag, 2019 ). By contrast, quantitative studies of QRPs need to rely on non-public sources in the form of statements and appraisals of survey respondents for the dependent variables and for potentially associated factors such as publication pressure, job insecurity, or competitive climate.

Many QRP surveys use items that target the respondents’ personal attitudes and preferences regarding the dependent variables, indicating QRP prevalence, as well as the explanatory variables. This has the advantage that the respondents presumably know their own preferences and practices. A significant disadvantage, however, concerns social desirability, which in this context means the tendency of respondents to portray themselves, sometimes inadvertently, in more positive ways than justified by their behavior. The extent of this problem was indicated in a meta-study by Fanelli ( 2009 ), which demonstrated major differences between answers to sensitive survey questions that targeted the respondents’ own behavior and questions that focused on the behavior of their colleagues. In the case study below, the pros and cons of the latter indirect approaches are analyzed.

The Problem of Covering Both Quantitative and Qualitative Research

Studies of QRP prevalence are dominated by quantitative research approaches, where there exists a common understanding of the meaning of facts, proper procedures and scientific evidence. Several research fields, also in the social and medical sciences, include qualitative approaches — case studies, interpretive inquiries, or discourse analysis — where assessments of ‘truth’ and ‘evidence’ may be different or more complex to evaluate.

This does not mean that all qualitative endeavors are equal or that deceit—such as presenting fabricated interview quotes or referring to non-existent protocols —is accepted. However, while there are defined criteria for reporting qualitative research, such as the Consolidated Criteria for Reporting Qualitative Research (COREQ) (Tong et al., 2007 ) or the Standards for Reporting Qualitative Research (SRQR checklist) (O’Brien et al., 2014 ), the field of qualitative research encompasses a wide range of different approaches. This includes comparative case studies that offer detailed evidence to support their claims—such as the differences between British and Japanese factories (Dore, 1973 /2011)—as well as discourse analyses and interpretive studies, where the concept of ‘evidence’ is more fluid and hard to apply. The generative richness of the analysis is a key component of their quality (Flick, 2013 ). This intra-field variation makes it hard to pin down and agree upon general QRP items to capture such behaviors in qualitative research. Some researchers have tried to interpret and report qualitative research by means of quantified methods (Ravn & Sørensen, 2021 ), but so far, these attempts constitute a marginal phenomenon. Consequently, the challenges of measuring the prevalence of QRPs (or similar issues) in the variegated field of qualitative research remain largely unexplored.

The Problem of Institutional Controversiality and Personal Sensitivity

Science and academia depend on public trust for funding and executing research. This makes investigations of questionable behaviors a controversial issue for universities and may lead to institutional refusal/non-response. This resistance was experienced by the designers of a large-scale survey of norms and practices in the Dutch academia when several universities decided not to take part, referring to the potential danger of negative publicity (de Vrieze, 2021 ). A Flemish survey on academic careers encountered similar participation problems (Aubert Bonn & Pinxten, 2019 ). Another study on universities’ willingness to solicit whistleblowers for participation revealed that university officers, managers, and lawyers tend to feel obligated to protect their institution’s reputation (Byrn et al., 2016 ). Such institutional actors may resist participation to avoid the exposure of potentially negative information about their institutions and management practices, which might damage the university’s brand (Byrn et al., 2016 ; Downes, 2017 ).

QRP surveys involve sensitive and potentially intrusive questions also from a respondent’s personal perspective that can lead to a reluctance to participate and non-response behavior (Roberts & John, 2014 ; Tourangeau & Yan, 2007 ). Studies show that willingness to participate declines for surveys covering sensitive issues such as misconduct, crime, and corruption, compared to less sensitive ones like leisure activities (cf. Tourangeau et al., 2010 ). The method of survey administration—whether face-to-face, over the phone, via the web, or paper-based—can influence the perceived sensitivity and response rate (Siewert & Udani, 2016 ; Szolnoki & Hoffmann, 2013 ). In the case study below, the survey did not require any institutional support. Instead, the designers focused on minimizing the individual sensitivity problem by avoiding questions about the respondents’ personal practices. To manage this, they concentrated on their colleagues’ behaviors (see Sect. 4.2). Even if a respondent agrees to participate, they may not answer the QRP items due to insufficient knowledge about her colleagues’ practices or a lack of motivation to answer critical questions about their colleagues’ practices (Beatty & Herrmann, 2002 ; Yan & Curtin, 2010 ). Additionally, a significant time gap between observing specific QRPs in the respondent’s research environment and receiving the survey may make it difficult to recall and accurately respond to the questions. Such issues may also result in non-response problems.

Addressing the Problems: Case Study of a Cross-Field QRP Survey – Design Process, Survey Content, Design Challenges

This section presents a case study of the way these four problems were addressed in a cross-field survey intended to capture QRP prevalence and associated factors across the social and medical sciences in Sweden. The account is based on the authors’ intensive involvement in the design and analysis of the survey, including the technical and cognitive testing, and post-implementation analysis of item quality, missing responses, and open respondent comments. The theoretical background and the substantive results of the study are presented in a separate paper (Karabag et al., 2024 ). Method and language experts at Statistics Sweden, a government agency responsible for public statistics in Sweden, supported the testing procedures, the stratified respondent sampling and administered the survey roll-out.

The Survey Design Process – Repeated Testing and Prototyping

The design process included four steps of testing, revising, and prototyping, which allowed the researchers to iteratively improve the survey and plan the roll-out.

Step 1: Development of the Baseline Survey

This step involved searching the literature and creating a list of alternative constructs concerning the key concepts in the planned survey. Based on the study’s aim, the first and third authors compared these constructs and examined how they had been itemized in the literature. After two rounds of discussions, they agreed on construct formulations and relevant ways to measure them, rephrased items if deemed necessary, and designed new items in areas where the extant literature did not provide any guidance. In this way, Survey Version 1 was compiled.

Step 2: Pre-Testing by Means of a Large Convenience Sample

In the second step, this survey version was reviewed by two experts in organizational behavior at Linköping University. This review led to minor adjustments and the creation of Survey Version 2 , which was used for a major pretest. The aim was both to check the quality of individual items and to garner enough responses for a factor analysis that could be used to build a preliminary theoretical model. This dual aim required a larger sample than suggested in the literature on pretesting (Perneger et al., 2015 ). At the same time, it was essential to minimize the contamination of the planned target population in Sweden. To accomplish this, the authors used their access to a community of organization scholars to administer Survey Version 2 to 200 European management researchers.

This mass pre-testing yielded 163 responses. The data were used to form preliminary factor structures and test a structural equation model. Feedback from a few of the respondents highlighted conceptual issues and duplicated questions. Survey Version 3 was developed and prepared for detailed pretesting based on this feedback.

Step 3: Focused Pre-Testing and Technical Assessment

This step focused on the pre-testing and technical assessment. The participants in this step’s pretesting were ten researchers (six in the social sciences and four in the medical sciences) at five Swedish universities: Linköping, Uppsala, Gothenburg, Gävle, and Stockholm School of Economics. Five of those researchers mainly used qualitative research methods, two used both qualitative and quantitative methods, and three used quantitative methods. In addition, Statistics Sweden conducted a technical assessment of the survey items, focusing on wording, sequence, and response options. Footnote 1 Based on feedback from the ten pretest participants and the Statistics Sweden assessment, Survey Version 4 was developed, translated into Swedish, and reviewed by two researchers with expertise in research ethics and scientific misconduct.

It should be highlighted that Swedish academia is predominantly bilingual. While most researchers have Swedish as their mother tongue, many are more proficient in English, and a minority have limited or no knowledge of Swedish. During the design process, the two language versions were compared item by item and slightly adjusted by skilled bilingual researchers. This task was relatively straightforward since most items and concepts were derived from previously published literature in English. Notably, the Swedish versions of key terms and concepts have long been utilized within Swedish academia (see for example Berggren, 2016 ; Hasselberg, 2012 ). To secure translation quality, the language was controlled by a language expert at Statistics Sweden.

Step 4: Cognitive Interviews by Survey and Measurement Experts

Next, cognitive interviews (Willis, 2004 ) were organized with eight researchers from the social and medical sciences and conducted by an expert from Statistics Sweden (Wallenborg Likidis, 2019 ). The participants included four women and four men, ranging in age from 30 to 60. They were two doctoral students, two lecturers, and four professors, representing five different universities and colleges. Additionally, two participants had a non-Nordic background. To ensure confidentiality, no connections are provided between these characteristics and the individual participants.

An effort was made to achieve a distribution of gender, age, subject, employment, and institution. Four social science researchers primarily used qualitative research methods, while the remaining four employed qualitative and quantitative methods. Additionally, four respondents completed the Swedish version of the survey, and four completed the English version.

The respondents completed the survey in the presence of a methods expert from Statistics Sweden, who observed their entire response process. The expert noted spontaneous reactions and recorded instances where respondents hesitated or struggled to understand an item. After the survey, the expert conducted a structured interview with all eight participants, addressing details in each section of the survey, including the missive for recruiting respondents. Some respondents provided oral feedback while reading the cover letter and answering the questions, while others offered feedback during the subsequent interview.

During the cognitive interview process, the methods expert continuously communicated suggestions for improvements to the design team. A detailed test protocol confirmed that most items were sufficiently strong, although a few required minor modifications. The research team then finalized Survey Version 5 , which included both English and Swedish versions (for the complete survey, see Supplementary Material S1).

Although the test successfully captured a diverse range of participants, it would have been desirable to conduct additional tests of the English survey with more non-Nordic participants; as it stands, only one such test was conducted. Despite the participants’ different approaches to completing the survey, the estimated time to complete it was approximately 15–20 min. No significant time difference was observed between completing the survey in Swedish and English.

Design Challenges – the Dearth of an Item-Specific Public Quality Discussion

The design decision to employ survey items from the relevant literature as much as possible was motivated by a desire to increase comparability with previous studies of questionable research practices. However, this approach came with several challenges. Survey-based studies of QRPs rely on the respondents’ subjective assessments, with no possibility to compare the answers with other sources. Thus, an open discussion of survey problems would be highly valuable. However, although published studies usually present the items used in the surveys, there is seldom any analysis of the problems and tradeoffs involved when using a particular type of item or response format and meager information about item validity. Few studies, for example, contain any analysis that clarifies which items that measured the targeted variables with sufficient precision and which items that failed to do so.

Another challenge when using existing survey studies is the lack of information regarding the respondents’ free-text comments about the survey’s content and quality. This could be because the survey did not contain any open questions or because the authors of the report could not statistically analyze the answers. As seen below, however, open respondent feedback on a questionnaire involving sensitive or controversial aspects may provide important feedback regarding problems that did not surface during the pretest process, which by necessity targets much smaller samples.

Survey Content

The survey started with questions about the respondent’s current employment and research environment. It ended with background questions on the respondents’ positions and the extent of their research activity, plus space for open comments about the survey. The core content of the survey consisted of sections on the organizational climate (15 items), scientific norms (13 items), good and questionable research practices (16 items), perceptions of fairness in the academic system (4 items), motivation for conducting research (8 items), ethics training and policies (5 items); and questions on the quality of the research environment and the respondent’s perceived job security.

Sample and Response Rate

All researchers, teachers, and Ph.D. students employed at Swedish universities are registered by Statistics Sweden. To ensure balanced representation and perspectives from both large universities and smaller university colleges, the institutions were divided into three strata based on the number of researchers, teachers, and Ph.D. students: more than 1,000 individuals (7 universities and university colleges), 500–999 individuals (3 institutions), and fewer than 500 individuals (29 institutions). From these strata, Statistics Sweden randomly sampled 35%, 45%, and 50% of the relevant employees, resulting in a sample of 10,047 individuals. After coverage analysis and exclusion of wrongly included, 9,626 individuals remained.

The selected individuals received a personal postal letter with a missive in both English and Swedish informing them about the project and the survey and notifying them that they could respond on paper or online. The online version provided the option to answer in either English or Swedish. The paper version was available only in English to reduce the cost of production and posting. The missive provided the recipients with comprehensive information about the study and what their involvement would entail. It emphasized the voluntary character of participation and their right to withdraw from the survey at any time, adding: “If you do not want to answer the questions , we kindly ask you to contact us. Then you will not receive any reminders.” Sixty-three individuals used this decline option. In line with standard Statistics Sweden procedures, survey completion implied an agreement to participation and to the publication of anonymized results and indicated participants’ understanding of the terms provided (Duncan & Cheng, 2021 ). An email address was provided for respondents to request study outputs or for any other reason. The survey was open for data collection for two months, during which two reminders were sent to non-responders who had not opted out.

Once Statistics Sweden had collected the answers, they were anonymized and used to generate data files delivered to the authors. Statistics Sweden also provided anonymized information about age, gender, and type of employment of each respondent in the dataset delivered to the researchers. Of the targeted individuals, 3,295 responded, amounting to an overall response rate of 34.2%. An analysis of missing value patterns revealed that 290 of the respondents either lacked data for an entire factor or had too many missing values dispersed over several survey sections. After removing these 290 responses, we used SPSS algorithms (IBM-SPSS Statistics 27) to analyze the remaining missing values, which were randomly distributed and constituted less than 5% of the data. These values were replaced using the program’s imputation program (Madley-Dowd et al., 2019 ). The final dataset consisted of 3,005 individuals, evenly distributed between female and male respondents (53,5% vs. 46,5%) and medical and social scientists (51,3% vs. 48,5%). An overview of the sample and the response rate is provided in Table  1 , which can also be found in (Karabag et al., 2024 ). As shown in Table  1 , the proportion of male and female respondents, as well as the proportion of respondents from medical and social science, and the age distribution of the respondents compared well with the original selection frame from Statistics Sweden.

Revisiting the Four Problems. Partial Solutions and Remaining Issues

Managing the precision problem - the value of factor analyses.

As noted above, the lack of conceptual consensus and standard ways to measure QRPs has resulted in a huge variation in estimated prevalence. In the case studied here, the purpose was to investigate deviations from research integrity and not low-quality research in general. This conceptual focus implied that selected survey items regarding QRP should build on the core aspect of intention, as suggested by Banks et al. ( 2016 , p. 323): “design, analytic, or reporting practices that have been questioned because of the potential for the practice to be employed with the purpose of presenting biased evidence in favor of an assertion”. After scrutinizing the literature, five items were selected as general indicators of QRP, irrespective of the research approach (see Table  2 ).

An analysis of the survey responses indicated that the general QRP indicators worked well in terms of understandability and precision. Considering the sensitive nature of the items, features that typically yield very high rates of missing data (Fanelli, 2009 ; Tourangeau & Yan, 2007 ), our missing rates of 11–21% must be considered modest. In addition, there were a few critical comments on the item formulation in the open response section at the end of the survey (see below).

Regarding the explanatory (independent) variables, the survey was inspired by studies showing the importance of the organizational climate and the normative environment within academia (Anderson et al., 2010 ). Organizational climate can be measured in several ways; the studied survey focused on items related to a collegial versus a competitive climate. The analysis of the normative environment was inspired by the classical norms of science articulated by Robert Merton in his CUDOS framework: communism (communalism), universalism, disinterestedness, and organized skepticism (Merton, 1942 /1973). This framework has been extensively discussed and challenged but remains a key reference (Anderson et al., 2010 ; Chalmers & Glasziou, 2009 ; Kim & Kim, 2018 ; Macfarlane & Cheng, 2008 ). Moreover, we were inspired by the late work of Merton on the ambivalence and ambiguities of scientists (Merton, 1942 /1973), and the counter norms suggested by Mitroff ( 1974 ). Thus, the survey involved a composite set of items to capture the contradictory normative environment in academia: classical norms as well as their counter norms.

To reduce the problems of social desirability bias and personal sensitivity, the survey design avoided items about the respondent’s personal adherence to explicit ideals, which are common in many surveys (Gopalakrishna et al., 2022 ). Instead, the studied survey focused on the normative preferences and attitudes within the respondent’s environment. This necessitated the identification, selection, and refinement of 3–4 items for each potentially relevant norm/counter-norm. The selection process was used in previous studies of norm subscription in various research communities (Anderson et al., 2007 ; Braxton, 1993 ; Bray & von Storch, 2017 ). For the norm “skepticism”, we consulted studies in the accounting literature of the three key elements of professional skepticism: questioning mind, suspension of judgment and search for knowledge (Hurtt, 2010 ).

The first analytical step after receiving the completed survey set from Statistics Sweden was to conduct a set of factor analyses to assess the quality and validity of the survey items related to the normative environment and the organizational climate. These analyses suggested three clearly identifiable factors related to the normative environment: (1) a counter norm factor combining Mitroff’s particularism and dogmatism (‘Biasedness’ in the further analysis), and two Mertonian factors: (2) Skepticism and (3) Openness, a variant of Merton’s Communalism (see Table  3 ). A fourth Merton factor, Disinterestedness, could not be identified in our analysis.

The analytical process for organizational climate involved reducing the number of items from 15 to 11 (see Table 4 ). Here, the factor analysis suggested two clearly identifiable factors, one related to collegiality and the other related to competition (see Table  4 ). Overall, the factor analyses suggested that the design efforts had paid off in terms of high item quality, robust factor loadings, and a very limited need to remove any items.

In a parallel step, the open comments were assessed as an indication of how the study was perceived by the respondents (see Table  5 ). Of the 3005 respondents, 622 provided comprehensible comments, and many of them were extensive. 187 comments were related to the respondents’ own employment/role, 120 were related to the respondents’ working conditions and research environment, and 98 were related to the academic environment and atmosphere. Problems in knowing details of collegial practices were mentioned in 82 comments.

Reducing Desirability Bias - the Challenge of Nonresponse

It is well established that studies on topics where the respondent has anything embarrassing or sensitive to report suffer from more missing responses than studies on neutral subjects and that respondents may edit the information they provide on sensitive topics (Tourangeau & Yan, 2007 ). Such a social desirability bias is applicable for QRP studies which explicitly target the respondents’ personal attitudes and behaviors. To reduce this problem, the studied survey applied a non-self-format focusing on the behaviors and preferences of the respondents’ colleagues. Relevant survey items from published studies were rephrased from self-format designs to non-self-questions about practices in the respondent’s environment, using the format: “In my research environment, colleagues…” followed by a five-step incremental response format from “(1) never” to “(5) always”. In a similar way the survey avoided “should”-statements about ideal normative values: “Scientists and scholars should critically examine…”. Instead, the survey used items intended to indicate the revealed preferences in the respondent’s normative environment regarding universalism versus particularism or openness versus secrecy.

As indicated by Fanelli ( 2009 ), these redesign efforts probably reduced the social desirability bias significantly. At the same time, however, the redesign seemed to increase a problem not discussed by Fanelli ( 2009 ): an increased uncertainty problem related to the respondents’ difficulties of knowing the practices of their colleagues in questionable areas. This issue was indicated by the open comment at the end of the studied survey, where 13% of the 622 respondents pointed out that they lacked sufficient knowledge about the behavior of their colleagues to answer the QRP questions (see Table  5 ). One respondent wrote:

“It’s difficult to answer questions about ‘colleagues in my research area’ because I don’t have an insight into their research practices; I can only make informed guesses and generalizations. Therefore, I am forced to answer ‘don’t know’ to a lot of questions”.

Regarding the questions on general QRPs, the rate of missing responses varied between 11% and 21%. As for the questions targeting specific QRP practices in quantitative and qualitative research, the rate of missing responses ranged from 38 to 49%. Unfortunately, the non-response alternative to these questions (“Don’t know/not relevant”) combined the two issues: the lack of knowledge and the lack of relevance. Thus, we don’t know what part of the missing responses related to a non-presence of the specific research approach in the respondent’s environment and what part signaled a lack of knowledge about collegial practices in this environment.

Measuring QRPs in Qualitative Research - the Limited Role of Pretests

Studies of QRP prevalence focus on quantitative research approaches, where there exists a common understanding of the interpretation of scientific evidence, clearly recommended procedures, and established QRP items related to compliance with these procedures. In the heterogenous field of qualitative research, there are several established standards for reporting the research (O’Brien et al., 2014 ; Tong et al., 2007 ), but, as noted above, hardly any commonly accepted survey items that capture behaviors that fulfill the criteria for QRPs. As a result, the studied survey project designed such items from the start during the survey development process. After technical and cognitive tests, four items were selected. See Table  6 .

Despite the series of pretests, however, the first two of these items met severe criticism from a few respondents in the survey’s open commentary section. Here, qualitative researchers argued that the items were unduly influenced by the truth claims in quantitative studies, whereas their research dealt with interpretation and discourse analysis. Thus, they rejected the items regarding selective usage of respondents and of interview quotes as indicators of questionable practices:

“The alternative regarding using quotes is a bit misleading. Supporting your results by quotes is a way to strengthen credibility in a qualitative method….” “The question about dubious practices is off target for us, who work with interpretation rather than solid truths. You can present new interpretations, but normally that does not imply that previous ‘findings’ should be considered incorrect.” “The questions regarding qualitative research were somewhat irrelevant. Often this research is not guided by a given hypothesis, and researchers may use a convenient sample without this resulting in lower quality.”

One comment focused on other problems related to qualitative research:

“Several questions do not quite capture the ethical dilemmas we wrestle with. For example , is the issue of dishonesty and ‘inaccuracies’ a little misplaced for us who work with interpretation? …At the same time , we have a lot of ethical discussions , which , for example , deal with power relations between researchers and ‘researched’ , participant observation/informal contacts and informed consent (rather than patients participating in a study)”.

Unfortunately, the survey received these comments and criticism only after the full-scale rollout and not during the pretest rounds. Thus, we had no chance to replace the contested items with other formulations or contemplate a differentiation of the subsection to target specific types of qualitative research with appropriate questions. Instead, we had to limit the post-roll-out survey analysis to the last two items in Table  6 , although they captured devious behaviors rather than gray zone practices.

Why then was this criticism of QRP items related to qualitative research not exposed in the pretest phase? This is a relevant question, also for future survey designers. An intuitive answer could be that the research team only involved quantitative researchers. However, as highlighted above, the pretest participants varied in their research methods: some exclusively used qualitative methods, others employed mixed methods, and some utilized quantitative methods. This diversity suggests that the selection of test participants was appropriate. Moreover, all three members of the research team had experience of both quantitative and qualitative studies. However, as discussed above, the field of qualitative research involves several different types of research, with different goals and methods – from detailed case studies grounded in original empirical fieldwork to participant observations of complex organizational phenomena to discursive re-interpretations of previous studies. Of the 3,005 respondents who answered the survey in a satisfactory way, only 16 respondents, or 0,5%, had any critical comments about the QRP items related to qualitative research. A failure to capture the objections from such a small proportion in a pretest phase is hardly surprising. The general problem could be compared with the challenge of detecting negative side-effects in drug development. Although the pharmaceutical firms conduct large-scale tests of candidate drugs before government approval, doctors nevertheless detect new side-effects when the medicine is rolled out to significantly more people than the test populations – and report these less frequent problems in the additional drug information (Galeano et al., 2020 ; McNeil et al., 2010 ).

In the social sciences, the purpose of pre-testing is to identify problems related to ambiguities and bias in item formulation and survey format and initiate a search for relevant solutions. A pre-test on a small, selected subsample cannot guarantee that all respondent problems during the full-scale data collection will be detected. The pretest aims to reduce errors to acceptable levels and ensure that the respondents will understand the language and terminology chosen. Pretesting in survey development is also essential to help the researchers to assess the overall flow and structure of the survey, and to make necessary adjustments to enhance respondent engagement and data quality (Ikart, 2019 ; Presser & Blair, 1994 ).

In our view, more pretests would hardly solve the epistemological challenge of formulating generally acceptable QRP items for qualitative research. The open comments studied here suggest that there is no one-size-fits-all solution. If this is right, the problem should rather be reformulated to a question of identifying different strands of qualitative research with diverse views of integrity and evidence which need to be measured with different measures. To address this challenge in a comprehensive way, however, goes far beyond the current study.

Controversiality and Collegial sensitivity - the Challenge of Predicting Nonresponse

Studies of research integrity, questionable research practices, and misconduct in science tend to be organizationally controversial and personally sensitive. If university leaders are asked to support such studies, there is a considerable risk that the answer will be negative. In the case studied here, the survey roll-out was not dependent on any active organizational participation since Statistics Sweden possessed all relevant respondent information in-house. This, we assumed, would take the controversiality problem off the agenda. Our belief was supported by the non-existent complaints regarding a potential negativity bias from the pretest participants. Instead, the problem surfaced when the survey was rolled out, and all the respondents contemplated the survey. The open comment section at the end of the survey provided insights into this reception.

Many respondents provided positive feedback, reflected in 30 different comments such as:

“Thank you for doing this survey. I really hope it will lead to changes because it is needed”. “This is an important survey. However , there are conflicting norms , such as those you cite in the survey , /concerning/ for example , data protection. How are researchers supposed to be open when we cannot share data for re-analysis?” “I am glad that the problems with egoism and non-collegiality are addressed in this manner ”.

Several of them asked for more critical questions regarding power, self-interest, and leadership:

“What I lack in the survey were items regarding academic leadership. Otherwise, I am happy that someone is doing research on these issues”. “A good survey but needs to be complemented with questions regarding researchers who put their commercial interests above research and exploit academic grants for commercial purposes”.

A small minority criticized the survey for being overly negative towards academia:

“A major part of the survey feels very negative and /conveys/ the impression that you have a strong pre-understanding of academia as a horrible environments”. “Some of the questions are uncomfortable and downright suggestive. Why such a negative attitude towards research?” “The questions have a tendency to make us /the respondents/ informers. An unpleasant feeling when you are supposed to lay information against your university”. “Many questions are hard to answer, and I feel that they measure my degree of suspicion against my closest colleagues and their motivation … Several questions I did not want to answer since they contain a negative interpretation of behaviors which I don’t consider as automatically negative”.

A few of these respondents stated that they abstained from answering some of the ‘negative questions’, since they did not want to report on or slander their colleagues. The general impact is hard to assess. Only 20% of the respondents offered open survey comments, and only seven argued that questions were “negative”. The small number explains why the issue of negativity did not show up during the testing process. However, a perceived sense of negativity may have affected the willingness to answer among more respondents than those who provided free test comments.

Conclusion - The Needs for a Cumulative Knowledge Trajectory in Integrity Studies

In the broad field of research integrity studies, investigations of QRPs in different contexts and countries play an important role. The comparability of the results, however, depends on the conceptual focus of the survey design and the quality of the survey items. This paper starts with a discussion of four common problems in QRP research: the problems of precision, social desirability, incomplete coverage, and organizational controversiality and sensitivity. This is followed by a case study of how these problems were addressed in a detailed survey design process. An assessment of the solutions employed in the studied survey design reveals progress as well as unresolved issues.

Overall, the paper shows that the problem and challenges of precision could be effectively managed through explicit conceptual definitions and careful item design.

The problem of social desirability bias was probably reduced by means of a non-self-response format referring to preferences and behaviors among colleagues instead of personal behaviors. However, an investigation of open respondent comments indicated that the reduced risk of social bias came at the expense of higher uncertainty due to the respondents’ lack of insight in the concrete practices of their colleagues.

The problem of incomplete coverage of QRPs in qualitative research, the authors initially linked to “the lack of standard items” to capture QRPs in qualitative studies. Open comments at the end of the survey, however, suggested that the lack of such standards would not be easily managed by the design of new items. Rather, it seems to be an epistemological challenge related to the multifarious nature of the qualitative research field, where the understanding of ‘evidence’ is unproblematic in some qualitative sub-fields but contested in others. This conjecture and other possible explanations will hopefully be addressed in forthcoming epistemological and empirical studies.

Regarding the problem of controversiality and sensitivity, previous studies show that QRP research is a controversial and sensitive area for academic executives and university brand managers. The case study discussed here indicates that this is a sensitive subject also for rank-and-file researchers who may hesitate to answer, even when the questions do not target the respondents’ own practices but the practices and preferences of their colleagues. Future survey designers may need to engage in framing, presenting, and balancing sensitive items to reduce respondent suspicions and minimize the rate of missing responses. Reflections on the case indicate that this is doable but requires thoughtful design, as well as repeated tests, including feedback from a broad selection of prospective participants.

In conclusion, the paper suggests that more resources should be spent on the systematic evaluation of different survey designs and item formulations. In the long term, such investments in method development will yield a higher proportion of robust and comparable studies. This would mitigate the problems discussed here and contribute to the creation of a much-needed cumulative knowledge trajectory in research integrity studies.

An issue not covered here is that surveys, however finely developed, only give quantitative information about patterns, behaviors, and structures. An understanding of underlying thoughts and perspectives requires other procedures. Thus, methods that integrate and triangulate qualitative and quantitative data —known as mixed methods (Karabag & Berggren, 2016 ; Ordu & Yılmaz, 2024 ; Smajic et al., 2022 )— may give a deeper and more complete picture of the phenomenon of QRP.

Data Availability

The data supporting the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author, upon reasonable request.

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Acknowledgements

We thank Jennica Wallenborg Likidis, Statistics Sweden, for providing expert support in the survey design. We are grateful to colleagues Ingrid Johansson Mignon, Cecilia Enberg, Anna Dreber Almenberg, Andrea Fried, Sara Liin, Mariano Salazar, Lars Bengtsson, Harriet Wallberg, Karl Wennberg, and Thomas Magnusson, who joined the pretest or cognitive tests. We also thank Ksenia Onufrey, Peter Hedström, Jan-Ingvar Jönsson, Richard Öhrvall, Kerstin Sahlin, and David Ludvigsson for constructive comments or suggestions.

Open access funding provided by Linköping University. Swedish Forte: Research Council for Health, Working Life and Welfare ( https://www.vr.se/swecris?#/project/2018-00321_Forte ) Grant No. 2018-00321.

Open access funding provided by Linköping University.

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Solmaz Filiz Karabag

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Conceptualization: CB. Survey Design: SFK, CB, Methodology: SFK, BG, CB. Visualization: SFK, BG. Funding acquisition: SFK. Project administration and management: SFK. Writing – original draft: CB. Writing – review & editing: CB, BG, SFK. Approval of the final manuscript: SFK, BG, CB.

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Correspondence to Solmaz Filiz Karabag .

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Ethics approval and consent to participate.

The Swedish Act concerning the Ethical Review of Research Involving Humans (2003:460) defines the type of studies which requires an ethics approval. In line with the General Data Protection Regulation (EU 2016/67), the act is applicable for studies that collect personal data that reveal racial or ethnic origin, political opinions, trade union membership, religious or philosophical beliefs, or health and sexual orientation. The present study does not involve any of the above, why no formal ethical permit was required. The ethical aspects of the project and its compliance with the guidelines of the Swedish Research Council (2017) were also part of the review process at the project’s public funding agency Forte.

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The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

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The complete case study survey of social and medical science researchers in Sweden 2020.

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Berggren, C., Gerdin, B. & Karabag, S.F. Developing Surveys on Questionable Research Practices: Four Challenging Design Problems. J Acad Ethics (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10805-024-09565-0

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Evaluating the Effects of Picture Exchange Communication System® Mediator Training via Telehealth Using Behavioral Skills Training and General Case Training

• Autism Research & Treatment
• Evaluating the Effects of Picture…

Treszl, A. T., Koudys, J., & O’Neill, P. (2022). Evaluating the effects of Picture Exchange Communication System® mediator training via telehealth using behavioral skills training and general case training. Behavioral Interventions, 37 (2), 290-305.  https://doi.org/10.1002/bin.1835

Reviewed by: Kate McKenna, MEd, MSEd, MS, BCBA and Seirra Mitchell, BS, RBT, SLC Association for Science in Autism Treatment

Why research this topic?

According to the National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders , individuals on the autism spectrum often struggle with communication. Augmentative and Alternative Communication (AAC) systems such as the Picture Exchange Communication System (PECS) can aid in effective communication for individuals diagnosed with autism. PECS involves the child exchanging a picture or series of pictures with their communication partner to access a preferred item, activity, or outcome. It is crucial to provide parents with the necessary PECS implementation training to support their child’s communicative efforts at home and in other settings. When parents are not trained to implement PECS effectively at home, they may inadvertently misuse it or abandon the communication system altogether, thus jeopardizing their child’s ability to communicate (Moorcroft et al., 2019). Further, there is an increasing need to evaluate training interventions that are delivered via telehealth as this has become a more common modality for service delivery. The present study uses telehealth and teaches parents how to implement PECS through the combination of behavior skills training (BST) and general case training (GCT). BST is an evidence-based approach for training individuals to implement behavior change and related procedures (Parsons et al., 2012). GCT is a method of teaching concepts or skills using a variety of related materials and items. The goal of GCT is to increase the range of circumstances under which the child can perform a skill in the natural environment (Steere et al., 1989).

What did the researchers do?

The researchers examined the efficacy of BST and GCT through telehealth to teach parents to use PECS with their child in their home. The study focused on a 4-year-old boy named Noah, his father (Jeffery) and his mother (Kate). Noah has an autism diagnosis and was in the initial stages of using PECS as a mode of communication. Because Noah was making errors in differentiating between picture icons to ask for preferred items, it was recommended that Noah’s parents learn how to implement PECS at home as Noah would benefit from the additional picture discrimination training to help him become more accurate in his requests. In this study, the researchers trained the parents on successful implementation of discrimination training with Noah. Jeffery and Kate participated in training sessions where Jeffrey received direct training and Kate served as the confederate parent who acted as the child. The researchers targeted three key skills: Skill 1 was to set up opportunities for the child to communicate, such as presenting preferred items and activities that the child must use communication to gain access. Skill 2 was to conduct a correspondence check which ensures that the correct picture is being used to request the preferred item. Skill 3 was to implement the PECS four step error correction procedure (i.e., model, practice, switch, and repeat) to correct a potential picture discrimination error (i.e., when child exchanged an icon for juice but reached for a cookie).

A web video application called Life Size was used and sessions took place virtually with participants at the kitchen table or in the basement recreation room. The intervention package included BST and GCT. BST involved providing instructions, modeling of the target skills, opportunities for practice, and feedback on the practice sessions. GCT involved a process of general case analysis to identify variations in steps in parent responses for each of the three skills, possible responses by Noah that could be influenced by lack of interest or change in motivation, variations in the type, size, and magnitude of reinforcers, and potential variations in the location of the binder and response effort needed to locate and use the icons. Possible scenarios were created to be used in training.

During training, written instructions and video models were provided for the parents to follow to ensure correct PECS implementation and data were collected on their ability to follow those procedures. The parents viewed short videos (1 – 2 minutes) of the skills being performed. Additionally, researchers demonstrated the skills through telehealth so Noah’s parents could watch them. Jeffery then performed the skills with Kate acting as Noah. Jeffrey was provided with corrective feedback. Kate’s performance was monitored, and feedback was provided to ensure correct implementation. Data collection of Kate’s performance was important because it assisted the researchers in determining if she could implement PECS with Noah at home in the absence of direct training.

What did the researchers find?

Data collected on Jeffrey’s performance indicated that BST and GCT training resulted mastery of Skill 1 (creating opportunities) and Skill 2 (correspondence check). Jeffrey was not observed to meet criteria for mastery for Skill 3 (error correction). This may have been because there were limited opportunities to practice due to Noah’s high level of PECS accuracy. Through indirect training, Kate was also observed to master Skills 1 and 2 but did not meet criterion for Skill 3. Data taken on Noah’s use of PECS showed a high level of PECS accuracy. Before training began Noah demonstrated consistent errors in picture with a mean correct of 85%. That score did not change after parent training. During follow-up, Noah’s accuracy was variable, with a 76% accuracy at 2-weeks and 85% at 6-weeks. Additional research would need to be conducted to explore the relationship of PECS acceptance and use by individuals with autism and the PECS implementation skill level of caregivers. Social validity data were collected from Jeffrey only, who reported that the training had improved his PECS skills. The use of Kate as the confederate parent was beneficial.

What are the strengths and limitations of the study?

This study adds to the research base in its use of telehealth to teach the implementation of PECS using both BST and GCT in the child’s home. This study also examined the effectiveness of training one parent while the other participated as a confederate who did not receive direct training. Development of an effective teaching procedure in which one participant receives direct training and the other learns through observation is worthy of further study as it would reduce teaching time and could possibly increase the number of caregivers who could participate as observers. Further research would be needed on the efficaciousness of participants observing teaching sessions remotely.

There are a few limitations in this study that must be mentioned and suggest caution when interpreting its results. This study used one family, which makes it difficult to generalize results to other families that do not match the age, educational background, proficiency in English, and economic status of the participant family. The authors note also that Noah’s parents were aware they were being observed using PECS with him which may have influenced their behavior. Noah already possessed prerequisite skills using PECS. Additional research with participants with limited or no previous PECS experience is necessary before generalizing these results to the other PECS levels. Additionally, social validity measures were only completed with Jeffrey and not with Kate. More information about Kate’s experience could have been gleaned through social validity measurement or a survey which captured details of her perspective of the training procedures.

What do the results mean?

Results indicate that the combination of BST and GCT was effective when teaching parents to implement the PECS discrimination training with their child. Skill improvement was seen in the kitchen and the basement playroom, two places in which Noah was likely to want to request items. This shows that skills Noah learned in a clinical setting can transfer to the home environment when parents gain competency in the PECS protocol. Kate’s implementation of PECS improved even though she did not receive direct training. These results show promise, and further research is needed on the variables that effect observational learning. This study also demonstrates the strength of telehealth as a teaching medium. Parents observed both videos and live modeling of the skills. More research is needed to investigate the benefits of video and live models used in combination and separately.

Frost, L., & Bondy, A. (2006). The Picture Exchange Communication System training manual (2nd ed.). Pyramid Educational Products Inc. https://pecsusa.com/shop/pecs-training-manual-second-edition/#tab-description

Moorcroft, A., Scarinci, N., & Meyer, C. (2018). A systematic review of the barriers and facilitators to the provision and use of low-tech and unaided AAC systems for people with complex communication needs and their families. Disability and Rehabilitation: Assistive Technology , 14 (7), 710-731. https://doi.org/10.1080/17483107.2018.1499135

National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders. (2020). Autism Spectrum Disorder: Communication Problems in Children . NIDCD. https://www.nidcd.nih.gov/health/autism-spectrum-disorder-communication-problems-children

Parsons, M. B., Rollyson, J. H., & Reid, D. H. (2012). Evidence-based staff training: A guide for practitioners. Behavior Analysis in Practice , 5 (2), 2-11. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf03391819

Steere, D. E., Pancsofar, E. L., Powell, T. H., & Butterworth, J. (1989). Enhancing Instruction through General Case Programming. TEACHING Exceptional Children , 22 (1), 22-24. https://doi.org/10.1177/004005998902200105

Treszl, A., Koudys, J., & O’Neill, P. (2021). Evaluating the effects of Picture Exchange Communication System ® mediator training via telehealth using behavioral skills training and general case training. Behavioral Interventions , 37 (2). https://doi.org/10.1002/bin.1835

Citation for this article:

McKenna, K. & Mitchell, S. (2024). Research Synopsis: Evaluating the effects of Picture Exchange Communication System® mediator training via telehealth using behavioral skills training and general case training.  Science in Autism Treatment,   21 (10).

Other related Research Synopses:

• Research Synopsis: The effectiveness of the Picture Exchange Communication System (PECS) on communication and speech for children with autism spectrum disorders: A meta-analysis
• Research Synopsis: Assessing generalization of the Picture Exchange Communication System in children with autism
• Research Synopsis : Comparison of verbal and pictorial naturalistic communication strategies on spoken language
• Research Synopsis: The role of treatment fidelity on outcomes during a randomized field trial of an autism intervention

Related ASAT Articles:

• Treatment Summary: Picture Exchange Communication System (PECS)
• The Picture Exchange Communication System: Is there science behind that?
• Clinical Corner: When should parents be included in the implementation of a behavior intervention plan?
• Clinical Corner: What is functional communication training (FCT)?
• Clinical Corner: Building rapport with students using specific strategies to promote pairing
• Clinical Corner: What are some essential skills in a COVID-19 era?
• Clinical Corner: Evidence-based telehealth practice in the time of COVID-19
• Treatment Integrity: Why it is important regardless of discipline
• A compilation of ASAT articles of interest to parents of newly diagnosed children
• A compilation of ASAT articles of interest to behavior analysts
• How ASAT supports special education and general education teachers

Related ASAT Reviews:

• Book Review: Promoting functional communication within the home
• Book Review: The Function Wheels

Procedures to Teach Specific Skills for Individuals with Autism Joint Attention Caregiver-mediated intervention for low-resourced preschoolers with autism Preschool based JASPER intervention in minimally verbal children with autism: Pilot RCT Multiple effects of joint attention intervention for children with autism Communication Skills An intervention for sensory difficulties in children with autism: a randomized trial. Communication Interventions for Minimally Verbal Children with Autism: A Sequential Multiple Assignment Randomized Trial Preschool-based social-communication treatment for children with autism: 12- month follow-up of a randomized trial Social Skills RCT of a manualized social treatment for high-functioning autism spectrum disorders Making the connection: Randomized controlled trial of social skills at school for children with autism spectrum disorders Brief report: Effect of a focused imitation intervention on social functioning in children with autism Reading Skills Teaching children with autism to read for meaning: Challenges and possibilities  

Submission and Review

Submitting applications, irb applications.

All IRB applications are completed and submitted electronically through our online system OneAegis (IRBManager).  OneAegis can be accessed through single-sign-on (SSO), or by clicking here .

The IRB application form is configured to support multiple types of submissions.

Initiate a new application for:

• New human subjects research projects
• Establishing a data repository or recruitment registry – a standalone recruitment registry or data/specimen repository. Registries and repositories require standalone protocols and cannot be embedded within an application for a larger project.
• A Preliminary IRB Determination – for a funded project that lacks definite plans for the involvement of human subjects because time is needed after funds are awarded to develop the final protocol and related study materials. A Preliminary IRB Determination is often requested to meet Just-In-Time requirements.
• Request to rely on an external (non-ISU) IRB — for studies involving collaboration between researchers at ISU and another institution, where the other Institution’s IRB will assume oversight responsibilities for both sites. If Iowa State will serve as reviewing IRB, please complete the relevant sections within a regular “Human Subjects Research Project” form.

An amendment is needed for the following actions associated with approved research:

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• Closing the study ( guidance )

See OneAegis (IRBManager) How-To’s for instructional guidance for initiating various types of forms.

Exempt Review Wizard

The Exempt Review Wizard is an online form in the IRB’s online system (OneAegis, formerly IRBManager). The Wizard automates certification of exemption for certain types of research.  Please review the following document’s information about eligibility, using the Wizard, and the automated review process.

Step-by-step instructions are available here .

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Serious adverse events or unanticipated problems involving risk to participants or others are reported through a form in OneAegis (IRBManager).  See related IRB guidance for detailed reporting requirements and timelines.

Incidents that pose an immediate risk of serious harm to participants or others must be reported immediately to [email protected] or by phone ( staff directory ).

OneAegis (formerly called IRBManager)

OneAegis is the electronic system for IRB application submission and management of IRB-related study records. OneAegis was formerly called IRBManager—the system itself has not changed.

OneAegis supports an online IRB application and review process with conditioned questions, automated CITI training verification for study personnel, electronic signatures and routing, and email notifications for actions needed. It also allows for collaboration between researchers when completing the IRB application, as well as collaboration with the IRB office during IRB review. All IRB-related study materials and records are contained within the application and the online study record.

Entering Study Personnel

ISU-Affiliated personnel:  Personnel are identified by their ISU email address. If an ISU-affiliated individual is not recognized when their email address is entered, they must log into OneAegis using their ISU credentials one time to establish themselves as a contact in the system. After this one-time log in, personnel can be added to the IRB application.

We strongly advise having all study personnel log into IRBManager before you complete the IRB application.

Non-ISU-Affiliated:  Persons who do not have an ISU email address can be added using the form “Add Non-ISU Contact” in the Key Personnel section of the IRB application.

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IRB applications must be signed by the PI and Supervising Investigator (if applicable).  Applications for new studies must also be reviewed and signed by the Chair of the Department overseeing the research.  Individuals are notified by email when an IRB application needs review and signature.  Signing the form involves entering username and password.  After the form is signed, it will automatically route to the next stage in the submission or review process.

During the review process, IRB staff may send the form back with questions or revisions.  Those who need to take action (e.g., submitter, PI, etc.) are notified via email.

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The IRB application shows that my CITI training is “Missing.”  What do I do?

OneAegis verifies CITI training completion by connecting with CITI databases overnight each day.  Successful verification requires that the individual’s CITI account documents their affiliation with ISU and lists their ISU email address as the Primary Email Address in CITI.

If you have taken the training and your training is listed as “Missing” in the IRB application, please do the following:

• Check your CITI account and ensure you are affiliated with ISU and your ISU email address is listed as your primary email address.
• Check OneAegis the next day (after an overnight update).

If after the training still shows as “Missing” after both of the above steps are completed, please contact the IRB office ([email protected]).

The system does not find an ISU-affiliated individual when I enter their email address. What do I do?

If you see a message indicating contact not found after entering an ISU email address, that means the individual is not established as a contact in OneAegis.

All personnel must log into OneAegis using their ISU credentials (email address and password) one time to establish themselves as a contact in the system before they can be added to IRB applications. Individuals will be automatically established as a contact after logging into the system once—there are no additional forms to complete for ISU-affiliated persons.

We strongly advise having all study personnel log into IRBManager once, if they have not done so already, before you complete the IRB application.

OneAegis How-To’s

Review process & timelines.

IRB applications undergo a pre-review process to ensure that all materials and information needed for review are included and to determine the level of review necessary for the study (i.e., exempt review, expedited review, or review by the full committee). The terms exempt and expedited refer to categories of research that do not require review by the full committee. At ISU, expedited reviews are conducted by IRB Chair(s) or designated IRB members.  Exempt reviews are conducted by qualified IRB staff.

Following IRB approval, the approved application, the IRB-stamped supporting documents, and the IRB approval letter are available to the PI and Supervising Investigator (SI) in OneAegis (IRBManager). PIs/SIs should read the approval letter carefully as it contains important information. Also, the IRB-stamped informed consent document should be used when enrolling study participants.

Review timelines depend on three primary factors:

• Review volume – IRB review load is typically highest mid-semester.
• Application quality – clear, complete, and internally consistent applications require much less communication between the PI and IRB staff, and therefore, less review time.
• Project complexity – complex, novel, or risky research typically requires more review time.  In some instances, consultation with outside experts, legal counsel, or other campus departments is needed. Those processes take extra time.

PIs are advised to submit their applications well in advance of the proposed start date or the continuing review date of the study. Although a review often takes less time than shown in the table below, it’s wise to allow for the longer time frame, especially during peak periods such as the middle of fall and spring semesters.

IRB Meeting Schedule/Application Submission Deadlines

IRB meetings are normally held on the first and third Tuesdays of each month, including over the summer.*  Completed applications must be submitted two full weeks in advance of the meeting.  The two-week period is needed to prepare applications for the board and ensure IRB members have sufficient time for review.

Please note:  The application due date applies only to applications to be reviewed by the convened IRB.  Applications for exempt research or research that will be reviewed by a designated IRB member (i.e., “expedited review”) do not have submission deadlines; instead, these applications are placed in a queue for review in the order received.

*Changes in this schedule sometimes occur due to members’ absences, particularly during the summer and breaks or near University holidays.

IRB Approval Criteria

Federal regulations established the following criteria that must be satisfied for the IRB to approve non-exempt research.  IRB application questions are designed to obtain the information reviewers need to assess whether project plans align with these criteria.

Risks to subjects are minimized – sound scientific design, no unnecessary procedures, adequate plans to prevent harm (when possible), researchers are qualified, etc.

Risks are reasonable in relation to anticipated benefits of the research – in other words, there must be adequate scientific justification for exposing research participants to any risks associated with the study.

Subject selection is equitable – participant selection should be justified by the research question(s); not solely due to ease of access (particularly if they may be vulnerable).

The research plan includes adequate provisions to protect the privacy of subjects and to maintain confidentiality of the data collected – the IRB considers both privacy and confidentiality at all parts of the study (recruitment, during data collection, security of the data, when reporting results or sharing data, etc.).

Informed consent will be obtained from each participant prior to their inclusion in the study and in accordance with regulatory requirements , unless waived by the IRB .

Informed consent will be documented (by handwritten or electronic signature), unless this requirement is waived by the IRB.  If the documentation requirement is waived, the IRB may require written information to be provided to research participants.

When appropriate, additional safeguards are in place to protect the rights and welfare of subjects who may be vulnerable to coercion or undue influence (children, educationally or economically disadvantaged, individuals with impaired decision-making capacity, prisoners, students or employees—in some cases).

When appropriate (i.e., clinical trials, high risk research, etc.), the research plan includes adequate provisions for monitoring the data collected to ensure the safety of subjects.

Cannabis use linked to poorer sleep and memory problems

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The growing legal use of recreational and medical cannabis has generated an increased concern for potential side effects from long-term use, particularly regarding problems with memory and sleep. Until now, the effect of cannabis use on sleep and on memory have only been studied separately. Research led by Francesca Filbey, PhD, from the Laboratory of Neuroimaging of Reward Dynamics at The University of Texas at Dallas' Center for BrainHealth ® , in collaboration with a team from the University of Amsterdam, aimed to fill this gap by testing how sleep impacts memory among cannabis users.

The study, "The role of sleep in the link between cannabis use and memory function: evidence from a cross-sectional study" was recently published in The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse .

A total of 141 adults with cannabis use disorder (CUD, defined as using cannabis regularly, more than 5 days per week during the past year) and 87 non-current users participated in this study. 

Participants self-reported their frequency of sleep problems within the past week and completed a variety of cognitive assessments that tested their verbal memory, visuospatial learning and memory performance.

Results revealed that the CUD group reported more sleep problems than the non-CUD group, and that this contributed to visuospatial memory problems as well. There was no difference between the two groups in verbal memory performance.

Lead author Tracy Brown, a UT Dallas psychology PhD student in Dr. Filbey's lab, stated, "Although sleep is one of the primary reasons people use cannabis, our findings suggest that long-term cannabis use actually results in poorer sleep, which is associated with poorer memory. These findings are useful to inform the consumers, clinicians and policymakers about the therapeutic considerations for cannabis, particularly regarding its use as a sleep aid."

For researchers, this study points to the importance of analyzing sleep when evaluating the effects of cannabis on brain health." Tracy Brown, UT Dallas psychology PhD student 

This research was supported by grant 1R01 DA042490 from the National Institute on Drug Abuse/National Institute of Health.

Center for BrainHealth

Brown, T., et al. (2024). The role of sleep in the link between cannabis use and memory function: evidence from a cross-sectional study.  The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse . doi.org/10.1080/00952990.2024.2362832 .

Posted in: Medical Science News | Medical Research News | Healthcare News

Tags: Alcohol , Brain , Cannabis , Drug Abuse , Frequency , Laboratory , Neuroimaging , Psychology , Research , Sleep

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A Beginner's Guide to Starting the Research Process

When you have to write a thesis or dissertation , it can be hard to know where to begin, but there are some clear steps you can follow.

The research process often begins with a very broad idea for a topic you’d like to know more about. You do some preliminary research to identify a  problem . After refining your research questions , you can lay out the foundations of your research design , leading to a proposal that outlines your ideas and plans.

This article takes you through the first steps of the research process, helping you narrow down your ideas and build up a strong foundation for your research project.

Table of contents

Step 1: choose your topic, step 2: identify a problem, step 3: formulate research questions, step 4: create a research design, step 5: write a research proposal, other interesting articles.

First you have to come up with some ideas. Your thesis or dissertation topic can start out very broad. Think about the general area or field you’re interested in—maybe you already have specific research interests based on classes you’ve taken, or maybe you had to consider your topic when applying to graduate school and writing a statement of purpose .

Even if you already have a good sense of your topic, you’ll need to read widely to build background knowledge and begin narrowing down your ideas. Conduct an initial literature review to begin gathering relevant sources. As you read, take notes and try to identify problems, questions, debates, contradictions and gaps. Your aim is to narrow down from a broad area of interest to a specific niche.

Make sure to consider the practicalities: the requirements of your programme, the amount of time you have to complete the research, and how difficult it will be to access sources and data on the topic. Before moving onto the next stage, it’s a good idea to discuss the topic with your thesis supervisor.

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So you’ve settled on a topic and found a niche—but what exactly will your research investigate, and why does it matter? To give your project focus and purpose, you have to define a research problem .

The problem might be a practical issue—for example, a process or practice that isn’t working well, an area of concern in an organization’s performance, or a difficulty faced by a specific group of people in society.

Alternatively, you might choose to investigate a theoretical problem—for example, an underexplored phenomenon or relationship, a contradiction between different models or theories, or an unresolved debate among scholars.

To put the problem in context and set your objectives, you can write a problem statement . This describes who the problem affects, why research is needed, and how your research project will contribute to solving it.

>>Read more about defining a research problem

Next, based on the problem statement, you need to write one or more research questions . These target exactly what you want to find out. They might focus on describing, comparing, evaluating, or explaining the research problem.

A strong research question should be specific enough that you can answer it thoroughly using appropriate qualitative or quantitative research methods. It should also be complex enough to require in-depth investigation, analysis, and argument. Questions that can be answered with “yes/no” or with easily available facts are not complex enough for a thesis or dissertation.

In some types of research, at this stage you might also have to develop a conceptual framework and testable hypotheses .

>>See research question examples

The research design is a practical framework for answering your research questions. It involves making decisions about the type of data you need, the methods you’ll use to collect and analyze it, and the location and timescale of your research.

There are often many possible paths you can take to answering your questions. The decisions you make will partly be based on your priorities. For example, do you want to determine causes and effects, draw generalizable conclusions, or understand the details of a specific context?

You need to decide whether you will use primary or secondary data and qualitative or quantitative methods . You also need to determine the specific tools, procedures, and materials you’ll use to collect and analyze your data, as well as your criteria for selecting participants or sources.

>>Read more about creating a research design

Prevent plagiarism. Run a free check.

Finally, after completing these steps, you are ready to complete a research proposal . The proposal outlines the context, relevance, purpose, and plan of your research.

As well as outlining the background, problem statement, and research questions, the proposal should also include a literature review that shows how your project will fit into existing work on the topic. The research design section describes your approach and explains exactly what you will do.

You might have to get the proposal approved by your supervisor before you get started, and it will guide the process of writing your thesis or dissertation.

>>Read more about writing a research proposal

If you want to know more about the research process , methodology , research bias , or statistics , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

Methodology

• Sampling methods
• Simple random sampling
• Stratified sampling
• Cluster sampling
• Likert scales
• Reproducibility

 Statistics

• Null hypothesis
• Statistical power
• Probability distribution
• Effect size
• Poisson distribution

Research bias

• Optimism bias
• Cognitive bias
• Implicit bias
• Hawthorne effect
• Anchoring bias
• Explicit bias

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• Hersh Goldberg-Polin

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At the Jerusalem synagogue where Hersh Goldberg-Polin danced in life, grief and anger reign after his death

JERUSALEM — Three hundred and thirty-two days after Hersh Goldberg-Polin danced in the courtyard next to his Jerusalem synagogue on the holiday of Simchat Torah, more than a thousand people gathered there in grief and prayer to mourn his murder by Hamas terrorists in Gaza.

During the Sunday night vigil, the courtyard railings were lined with oversized yellow ribbons to symbolize advocacy for the hostages, Hapoel Jerusalem soccer flags — the 23-year-old’s favorite team — and posters that read, “We love you, stay strong, survive,” a mantra coined by his mother, Rachel Goldberg-Polin.

Just hours earlier, one of the posters had been hanging over the balcony of the home of Shira Ben-Sasson, a leader of Hakhel, the Goldberg-Polins’ egalitarian congregation in the Baka neighborhood of Jerusalem.

“We were sure we would take it down when he came home,” Ben-Sasson said.

The community wanted to unite while respecting the Goldberg-Polins’ desire for privacy, she said, prompting them to organize the prayer gathering.

“But it’s like a Band-Aid or giving first aid, it’s what you do in an emergency. I don’t know how we go on after this,” she said.

A covered courtyard at the Hakhel congregation was filled with mourners the day after Hersh Goldberg-Polin, whose family are prominent members, was found to have been killed in Gaza. Hundreds of other people crowded outside the gates, Sept. 1, 2024. (Deborah Danan)

She added that the community, which has a large contingent of English-speaking immigrants, was not prepared for the High Holidays, which begin in about a month. She said, “Seeing his empty seat is hard.”

For Ben-Sasson, who wore a T-shirt bearing the Talmudic dictum “There is no greater mitzvah than the redeeming of captives,” the tragedy is especially painful because, she said, it could have been avoided with a ceasefire agreement that freed hostages.

“Hersh was alive 48 hours ago. We think a deal could have saved him. There is no military solution to this,” she said.

That feeling of bereavement, often mixed with betrayal, pervaded gatherings across Israel on Sunday, as the country struggled with the news that six hostages who may have been freed in an agreement were now dead as negotiations continue to stall. Speakers at protests in Tel Aviv blamed Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu, who himself apologized for not getting the hostages out alive but blamed Hamas for obstructing a deal. The country’s labor union, the Histadrut, has called a national strike on Monday to demand a deal.

A rare early September rain lashed parts of Israel on Sunday, leading to a widespread interpretation: God, too, was weeping.

Some at the Jerusalem gathering, including the relative of another former hostage, said Netanyahu had chosen defeating Hamas over freeing the captives.

Josef Avi Yair Engel’s grandson Ofir was released from Hamas captivity in November. He paid tribute to Hersh Goldberg-Polin, murdered in captivity, in Jerusalem, Sept. 1, 2024. (Deborah Danan)

Josef Avi Yair Engel, whose grandson Ofir, 18, was released from Hamas captivity in November during that month’s ceasefire deal, expressed shock over Hersh’s murder but said he was not surprised, given the wartime policies of Netanyahu’s government.

“We knew months ago this was going to happen. Bibi’s formula, to dismantle Hamas and return the hostages, wasn’t logical. It’s an either/or situation,” Engel said, referring to Netanyahu by his nickname. “He’s tearing the country apart. I’m afraid that in the coming months there won’t be a state at all.”

Engel said he felt a close bond with Hersh’s father Jon Polin, not only because of their joint activism in the hostage families’ tent outside the Prime Minister’s Residence, but also because of their shared identity as Jerusalemites.

“There aren’t many of us in the hostage circle,” he said. “We’re like family.”

Sarah Mann, who did not know the family personally, said the weekend’s tragedy reminded her of Oct. 7.

“This day has sparks of the seventh, which created numbness and an inability to talk. Just complete shock,” she said.

Mourners left notes at a gathering at Hersh Goldberg-Polin’s family synagogue in Jerusalem. Many of the messages used the Hebrew word for “sorry.” (Deborah Danan)

Part of the reason for that, Mann said, was Rachel, who she described as a “force of faith.” Goldberg-Polin’s mother emerged as the most prominent advocate for the hostages globally and became a symbol in her own right as she crisscrossed the world calling for her son’s freedom.

“Millions of people around the world held onto her. Once that was cut, people’s ability to hold onto faith was knocked out today. But even though this has shattered us, we need to keep holding onto God,” Mann said.

For Susi Döring Preston, the day called to mind was not Oct. 7 but Yom Kippur, and its communal solemnity.

She said she usually steers clear of similar war-related events because they are too overwhelming for her.

“Before I avoided stuff like this because I guess I still had hope. But now is the time to just give in to needing to be around people because you can’t hold your own self up any more,” she said, tears rolling down her face. “You need to feel the humanity and hang onto that.”

Like so many others, Döring Preston paid tribute to the Goldberg-Polins’ tireless activism. “They needed everyone else’s strength but we drew so much strength from them and their efforts, “she said. “You felt it could change the outcome. But war is more evil than good. I think that’s the crushing thing. You can do everything right, but the outcome is still devastating.”

Guy Gordon, with his daughter Maya, added a broken heart to the piece of tape he has worn daily to mark the number of days since the hostage crisis began, Sept. 1, 2024. (Deborah Danan)

Guy Gordon, a member of Hakhel who moved to Israel from Dublin, Ireland, in the mid-1990s, said the efforts towards ensuring Hersh’s safe return have been an anchor for the community during the war. The community knew him as the family described him in its announcement of his funeral on Tuesday, as “a child of light, love and peace” who enjoyed exploring the world and coming home to his family, including his parents and younger sisters, Leebie and Orly.

“It gave us something to hope for, and pray for and to demonstrate for,” he said. “We had no choice but to be unreasonably optimistic. Tragically it transpired that he survived until the very end.”

Gordon, like many others in the crowd, wore a piece of duct tape marked with the number of days since Oct. 7 — a gesture initiated by Goldberg-Polin’s mother. Unlike on previous days, though, his tape also featured a broken red heart beside the number.

Nadia Levene, a family friend, also reflected on the improbability of Hersh’s survival.

“He did exactly what his parents begged him to do. He was strong. He did survive. And look what happened,” Levene said.

She hailed Rachel Goldberg-Polin’s “unwavering strength and belief in God,” adding, “There were times I lost faith. I suppose I was angry with God. But she just kept inspiring us all to pray, pray, pray.”

Leah Silver of Jerusalem examined stickers showing Rachel Goldberg-Polin’s mantra for her son Hersh, who was murdered in captivity in Gaza, at a gathering after Hersh’s death, Sept. 1, 2024. (Deborah Danan)

Jerusalem resident Leah Silver rejected politicizing the hostages’ deaths.

“Everything turns political so quickly. I came here because I felt that before all the protests, we need to just mourn for a moment and to pray. And show respect for each other,” she said. “We’ve become confused about who the enemy is. It’s very sad.”

But not everyone at the gathering joined in to sing Israel’s national anthem at the closing of the prayer gathering.

“I’m sorry, I can’t sing ‘Hatikvah,'” Reza Green, a Baka resident who did not know the Goldberg-Polins personally, said. “I’m too angry. We shouldn’t be here.”

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