an essay about type 2 diabetes

Essay on Diabetes for Students and Children

500+ words essay on diabetes.

Diabetes is a very common disease in the world. But people may never realize, how did they get diabetes and what will happen to them and what will they go through. It may not be your problem but you have to show respect and care for the one who has diabetes. It can help them and also benefited you to know more about it and have a better understanding of it. Diabetes is a metabolic disorder which is identified by the high blood sugar level. Increased blood glucose level damages the vital organs as well as other organs of the human’s body causing other potential health ailments.

Types of Diabetes

Diabetes Mellitus can be described in two types:

Description of two types of Diabetes Mellitus are as follows

1) Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus is classified by a deficiency of insulin in the blood. The deficiency is caused by the loss of insulin-producing beta cells in the pancreas. This type of diabetes is found more commonly in children. An abnormally high or low blood sugar level is a characteristic of this type of Diabetes.

Most patients of type 1 diabetes require regular administration of insulin. Type 1 diabetes is also hereditary from your parents. You are most likely to have type 1 diabetes if any of your parents had it. Frequent urination, thirst, weight loss, and constant hunger are common symptoms of this.

2) Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus is characterized by the inefficiency of body tissues to effectively respond to insulin because of this it may be combined by insulin deficiency. Type 2 diabetes mellitus is the most common type of diabetes in people.

People with type 2 diabetes mellitus take medicines to improve the body’s responsiveness to insulin or to reduce the glucose produced by the liver. This type of diabetes mellitus is generally attributed to lifestyle factors like – obesity, low physical activity, irregular and unhealthy diet, excess consumption of sugar in the form of sweets, drinks, etc.

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Causes of Diabetes

By the process of digestion, food that we eat is broken down into useful compounds. One of these compounds is glucose, usually referred to as blood sugar. The blood performs the job of carrying glucose to the cells of the body. But mere carrying the glucose to the cells by blood isn’t enough for the cells to absorb glucose.

This is the job of the Insulin hormone. Pancreas supply insulin in the human body. Insulin acts as a bridge for glucose to transit from blood to the body cells. The problem arises when the pancreas fails to produce enough insulin or the body cells for some reason do not receive the glucose. Both the cases result in the excess of glucose in the blood, which is referred to as Diabetes or Diabetes Mellitus.

Symptoms of Diabetes

Most common symptoms of diabetes are fatigue, irritation, stress, tiredness, frequent urination and headache including loss of strength and stamina, weight loss, increase in appetite, etc.

Levels of Diabetes

There are two types of blood sugar levels – fasting blood sugar level and postprandial blood sugar level. The fasting sugar level is the sugar level that we measure after fasting for at least eight hours generally after an overnight fast. Blood sugar level below 100 mg/dL before eating food is considered normal. Postprandial glucose level or PP level is the sugar level which we measure after two hours of eating.

The PP blood sugar level should be below 140 mg/dL, two hours after the meals. Though the maximum limit in both the cases is defined, the permissible levels may vary among individuals. The range of the sugar level varies with people. Different people have different sugar level such as some people may have normal fasting sugar level of 60 mg/dL while some may have a normal value of 90 mg/dL.

Effects of Diabetes

Diabetes causes severe health consequences and it also affects vital body organs. Excessive glucose in blood damages kidneys, blood vessels, skin resulting in various cardiovascular and skin diseases and other ailments. Diabetes damages the kidneys, resulting in the accumulation of impurities in the body.

It also damages the heart’s blood vessels increasing the possibility of a heart attack. Apart from damaging vital organs, diabetes may also cause various skin infections and the infection in other parts of the body. The prime cause of all type of infections is the decreased immunity of body cells due to their inability to absorb glucose.

Diabetes is a serious life-threatening disease and must be constantly monitored and effectively subdued with proper medication and by adapting to a healthy lifestyle. By following a healthy lifestyle, regular checkups, and proper medication we can observe a healthy and long life.

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Diseases & Conditions
Type 2 diabetes

Type 2 diabetes is a condition that happens because of a problem in the way the body regulates and uses sugar as a fuel. That sugar also is called glucose. This long-term condition results in too much sugar circulating in the blood. Eventually, high blood sugar levels can lead to disorders of the circulatory, nervous and immune systems.

In type 2 diabetes, there are primarily two problems. The pancreas does not produce enough insulin — a hormone that regulates the movement of sugar into the cells. And cells respond poorly to insulin and take in less sugar.

Type 2 diabetes used to be known as adult-onset diabetes, but both type 1 and type 2 diabetes can begin during childhood and adulthood. Type 2 is more common in older adults. But the increase in the number of children with obesity has led to more cases of type 2 diabetes in younger people.

There's no cure for type 2 diabetes. Losing weight, eating well and exercising can help manage the disease. If diet and exercise aren't enough to control blood sugar, diabetes medications or insulin therapy may be recommended.

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A Book: The Essential Diabetes Book
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Symptoms of type 2 diabetes often develop slowly. In fact, you can be living with type 2 diabetes for years and not know it. When symptoms are present, they may include:

Increased thirst.
Frequent urination.
Increased hunger.
Unintended weight loss.
Blurred vision.
Slow-healing sores.
Frequent infections.
Numbness or tingling in the hands or feet.
Areas of darkened skin, usually in the armpits and neck.

When to see a doctor

See your health care provider if you notice any symptoms of type 2 diabetes.

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Type 2 diabetes is mainly the result of two problems:

Cells in muscle, fat and the liver become resistant to insulin As a result, the cells don't take in enough sugar.
The pancreas can't make enough insulin to keep blood sugar levels within a healthy range.

Exactly why this happens is not known. Being overweight and inactive are key contributing factors.

How insulin works

Insulin is a hormone that comes from the pancreas — a gland located behind and below the stomach. Insulin controls how the body uses sugar in the following ways:

Sugar in the bloodstream triggers the pancreas to release insulin.
Insulin circulates in the bloodstream, enabling sugar to enter the cells.
The amount of sugar in the bloodstream drops.
In response to this drop, the pancreas releases less insulin.

The role of glucose

Glucose — a sugar — is a main source of energy for the cells that make up muscles and other tissues. The use and regulation of glucose includes the following:

Glucose comes from two major sources: food and the liver.
Glucose is absorbed into the bloodstream, where it enters cells with the help of insulin.
The liver stores and makes glucose.
When glucose levels are low, the liver breaks down stored glycogen into glucose to keep the body's glucose level within a healthy range.

In type 2 diabetes, this process doesn't work well. Instead of moving into the cells, sugar builds up in the blood. As blood sugar levels rise, the pancreas releases more insulin. Eventually the cells in the pancreas that make insulin become damaged and can't make enough insulin to meet the body's needs.

Risk factors

Factors that may increase the risk of type 2 diabetes include:

Weight. Being overweight or obese is a main risk.
Fat distribution. Storing fat mainly in the abdomen — rather than the hips and thighs — indicates a greater risk. The risk of type 2 diabetes is higher in men with a waist circumference above 40 inches (101.6 centimeters) and in women with a waist measurement above 35 inches (88.9 centimeters).
Inactivity. The less active a person is, the greater the risk. Physical activity helps control weight, uses up glucose as energy and makes cells more sensitive to insulin.
Family history. An individual's risk of type 2 diabetes increases if a parent or sibling has type 2 diabetes.
Race and ethnicity. Although it's unclear why, people of certain races and ethnicities — including Black, Hispanic, Native American and Asian people, and Pacific Islanders — are more likely to develop type 2 diabetes than white people are.
Blood lipid levels. An increased risk is associated with low levels of high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol — the "good" cholesterol — and high levels of triglycerides.
Age. The risk of type 2 diabetes increases with age, especially after age 35.
Prediabetes. Prediabetes is a condition in which the blood sugar level is higher than normal, but not high enough to be classified as diabetes. Left untreated, prediabetes often progresses to type 2 diabetes.
Pregnancy-related risks. The risk of developing type 2 diabetes is higher in people who had gestational diabetes when they were pregnant and in those who gave birth to a baby weighing more than 9 pounds (4 kilograms).
Polycystic ovary syndrome. Having polycystic ovary syndrome — a condition characterized by irregular menstrual periods, excess hair growth and obesity — increases the risk of diabetes.

Complications

Type 2 diabetes affects many major organs, including the heart, blood vessels, nerves, eyes and kidneys. Also, factors that increase the risk of diabetes are risk factors for other serious diseases. Managing diabetes and controlling blood sugar can lower the risk for these complications and other medical conditions, including:

Heart and blood vessel disease. Diabetes is associated with an increased risk of heart disease, stroke, high blood pressure and narrowing of blood vessels, a condition called atherosclerosis.
Nerve damage in limbs. This condition is called neuropathy. High blood sugar over time can damage or destroy nerves. That may result in tingling, numbness, burning, pain or eventual loss of feeling that usually begins at the tips of the toes or fingers and gradually spreads upward.
Other nerve damage. Damage to nerves of the heart can contribute to irregular heart rhythms. Nerve damage in the digestive system can cause problems with nausea, vomiting, diarrhea or constipation. Nerve damage also may cause erectile dysfunction.
Kidney disease. Diabetes may lead to chronic kidney disease or end-stage kidney disease that can't be reversed. That may require dialysis or a kidney transplant.
Eye damage. Diabetes increases the risk of serious eye diseases, such as cataracts and glaucoma, and may damage the blood vessels of the retina, potentially leading to blindness.
Skin conditions. Diabetes may raise the risk of some skin problems, including bacterial and fungal infections.
Slow healing. Left untreated, cuts and blisters can become serious infections, which may heal poorly. Severe damage might require toe, foot or leg amputation.
Hearing impairment. Hearing problems are more common in people with diabetes.
Sleep apnea. Obstructive sleep apnea is common in people living with type 2 diabetes. Obesity may be the main contributing factor to both conditions.
Dementia. Type 2 diabetes seems to increase the risk of Alzheimer's disease and other disorders that cause dementia. Poor control of blood sugar is linked to a more rapid decline in memory and other thinking skills.

Healthy lifestyle choices can help prevent type 2 diabetes. If you've received a diagnosis of prediabetes, lifestyle changes may slow or stop the progression to diabetes.

A healthy lifestyle includes:

Eating healthy foods. Choose foods lower in fat and calories and higher in fiber. Focus on fruits, vegetables and whole grains.
Getting active. Aim for 150 or more minutes a week of moderate to vigorous aerobic activity, such as a brisk walk, bicycling, running or swimming.
Losing weight. If you are overweight, losing a modest amount of weight and keeping it off may delay the progression from prediabetes to type 2 diabetes. If you have prediabetes, losing 7% to 10% of your body weight may reduce the risk of diabetes.
Avoiding long stretches of inactivity. Sitting still for long periods of time can increase the risk of type 2 diabetes. Try to get up every 30 minutes and move around for at least a few minutes.

For people with prediabetes, metformin (Fortamet, Glumetza, others), a diabetes medication, may be prescribed to reduce the risk of type 2 diabetes. This is usually prescribed for older adults who are obese and unable to lower blood sugar levels with lifestyle changes.

More Information

Diabetes prevention: 5 tips for taking control
Professional Practice Committee: Standards of Medical Care in Diabetes — 2020. Diabetes Care. 2020; doi:10.2337/dc20-Sppc.
Diabetes mellitus. Merck Manual Professional Version. https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/endocrine-and-metabolic-disorders/diabetes-mellitus-and-disorders-of-carbohydrate-metabolism/diabetes-mellitus-dm. Accessed Dec. 7, 2020.
Melmed S, et al. Williams Textbook of Endocrinology. 14th ed. Elsevier; 2020. https://www.clinicalkey.com. Accessed Dec. 3, 2020.
Diabetes overview. National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases. https://www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/diabetes/overview/all-content. Accessed Dec. 4, 2020.
AskMayoExpert. Type 2 diabetes. Mayo Clinic; 2018.
Feldman M, et al., eds. Surgical and endoscopic treatment of obesity. In: Sleisenger and Fordtran's Gastrointestinal and Liver Disease: Pathophysiology, Diagnosis, Management. 11th ed. Elsevier; 2021. https://www.clinicalkey.com. Accessed Oct. 20, 2020.
Hypersmolar hyperglycemic state (HHS). Merck Manual Professional Version. https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/endocrine-and-metabolic-disorders/diabetes-mellitus-and-disorders-of-carbohydrate-metabolism/hyperosmolar-hyperglycemic-state-hhs. Accessed Dec. 11, 2020.
Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA). Merck Manual Professional Version. https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/endocrine-and-metabolic-disorders/diabetes-mellitus-and-disorders-of-carbohydrate-metabolism/diabetic-ketoacidosis-dka. Accessed Dec. 11, 2020.
Hypoglycemia. Merck Manual Professional Version. https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/endocrine-and-metabolic-disorders/diabetes-mellitus-and-disorders-of-carbohydrate-metabolism/hypoglycemia. Accessed Dec. 11, 2020.
6 things to know about diabetes and dietary supplements. National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health. https://www.nccih.nih.gov/health/tips/things-to-know-about-type-diabetes-and-dietary-supplements. Accessed Dec. 11, 2020.
Type 2 diabetes and dietary supplements: What the science says. National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health. https://www.nccih.nih.gov/health/providers/digest/type-2-diabetes-and-dietary-supplements-science. Accessed Dec. 11, 2020.
Preventing diabetes problems. National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases. https://www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/diabetes/overview/preventing-problems/all-content. Accessed Dec. 3, 2020.
Schillie S, et al. Prevention of hepatitis B virus infection in the United States: Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices. MMWR Recommendations and Reports. 2018; doi:10.15585/mmwr.rr6701a1.
Caffeine: Does it affect blood sugar?
GLP-1 agonists: Diabetes drugs and weight loss
Hyperinsulinemia: Is it diabetes?
Medications for type 2 diabetes

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Essay on Diabetes

Students are often asked to write an essay on Diabetes in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on Diabetes

What is diabetes.

Diabetes is a chronic disease where the body can’t control blood sugar levels. This happens because the body either doesn’t make enough insulin or can’t use it properly.

Types of Diabetes

There are two main types: Type 1 and Type 2. Type 1 is when the body doesn’t produce insulin. Type 2 is when the body doesn’t use insulin well.

Managing Diabetes

Diabetes can be managed through a healthy diet, regular exercise, and medication. Regular check-ups are also important to monitor blood sugar levels.

The Impact of Diabetes

If not managed, diabetes can lead to serious health problems like heart disease, kidney disease, and vision loss.

250 Words Essay on Diabetes

Introduction.

Diabetes, a chronic metabolic disorder, is characterized by an increased level of glucose in the blood. It arises due to the body’s inability to produce or effectively utilize insulin, a hormone responsible for glucose regulation.

Etiology of Diabetes

Diabetes is classified into two major types: Type 1 and Type 2. Type 1 diabetes, an autoimmune disorder, is a result of the body’s immune system attacking insulin-producing cells in the pancreas. On the other hand, Type 2 diabetes, the more prevalent form, is primarily associated with insulin resistance and often linked to obesity and sedentary lifestyle.

Impact and Management

Diabetes can lead to severe complications like heart disease, kidney failure, and blindness if left unmanaged. Management involves lifestyle modifications, including a healthy diet, regular physical activity, and medication or insulin therapy as needed.

Prevention and Future Research

Prevention strategies for Type 2 diabetes involve promoting healthier lifestyles and early detection. For Type 1 diabetes, research is still ongoing to understand its triggers. Advances in technology and medicine, such as artificial pancreas systems and islet cell transplantation, show promise for future diabetes management.

Diabetes, a global health crisis, requires comprehensive understanding and management strategies. With ongoing research and advancements, the future holds potential for improved diabetes care and prevention.

500 Words Essay on Diabetes

Introduction to diabetes.

There are primarily two types of diabetes: Type 1 and Type 2. Type 1 diabetes is an autoimmune condition where the body’s immune system attacks the insulin-producing cells in the pancreas. This type is less common and usually develops early in life. Type 2 diabetes, on the other hand, is more prevalent and typically develops in adulthood. It occurs when the body becomes resistant to insulin or doesn’t produce enough to maintain a normal glucose level.

Risk Factors and Symptoms

Several factors increase the risk of developing diabetes, including genetics, obesity, lack of physical activity, and poor diet. Additionally, certain ethnic groups are at a higher risk.

Management and Treatment

While there is currently no cure for diabetes, it can be effectively managed with a combination of lifestyle changes and medication. Regular exercise, a balanced diet, and maintaining a healthy weight are crucial for managing both types of diabetes.

For Type 1 diabetes, insulin injections or use of an insulin pump are necessary. Type 2 diabetes can often be managed with lifestyle changes and oral medication, but insulin may be required as the disease progresses.

Complications and Prevention

Prevention strategies for Type 2 diabetes include regular physical activity, a healthy diet, maintaining a normal body weight, and avoiding tobacco use. Early detection through regular health screenings is also critical, as early treatment can prevent or delay the onset of complications.

Diabetes is a significant global health concern that requires concerted efforts for effective management and prevention. Understanding the disease, its risk factors, and the importance of early detection can go a long way in reducing the impact of this chronic condition. Through lifestyle changes and medical intervention, individuals with diabetes can lead healthy and fulfilling lives.

That’s it! I hope the essay helped you.

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Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: A Review of Current Trends

Abdulfatai b. olokoba.

1 Division of Gastroenterology, Department of Medicine, University of Ilorin Teaching Hospital, Ilorin, Nigeria.

Olusegun A. Obateru

2 Department of Medicine, Irrua Specialist Teaching Hospital, Irrua, Nigeria.

Lateefat B. Olokoba

3 Department of Ophthalmology, University of Ilorin Teaching Hospital, Ilorin, Nigeria.

Type 2 diabetes mellitus (DM) is a chronic metabolic disorder in which prevalence has been increasing steadily all over the world. As a result of this trend, it is fast becoming an epidemic in some countries of the world with the number of people affected expected to double in the next decade due to increase in ageing population, thereby adding to the already existing burden for healthcare providers, especially in poorly developed countries. This review is based on a search of Medline, the Cochrane Database of Systemic Reviews, and citation lists of relevant publications. Subject heading and key words used include type 2 diabetes mellitus, prevalence, current diagnosis, and current treatment. Only articles in English were included. Screening and diagnosis is still based on World Health Organization (WHO) and American Diabetes Association (ADA) criteria which include both clinical and laboratory parameters. No cure has yet been found for the disease; however, treatment modalities include lifestyle modifications, treatment of obesity, oral hypoglycemic agents, and insulin sensitizers like metformin, a biguanide that reduces insulin resistance, is still the recommended first line medication especially for obese patients. Other effective medications include non-sulfonylurea secretagogues, thiazolidinediones, alpha glucosidase inhibitors, and insulin. Recent research into the pathophysiology of type 2 DM has led to the introduction of new medications like glucagon-like peptide 1 analogoues: dipeptidyl peptidase-IV inhibitors, inhibitors of the sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 and 11ß-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase 1, insulin-releasing glucokinase activators and pancreatic-G-protein-coupled fatty-acid-receptor agonists, glucagon-receptor antagonists, metabolic inhibitors of hepatic glucose output and quick-release bromocriptine. Inhaled insulin was licensed for use in 2006 but has been withdrawn from the market because of low patronage.

Introduction

Diabetes mellitus (DM) is probably one of the oldest diseases known to man. It was first reported in Egyptian manuscript about 3000 years ago. 1 In 1936, the distinction between type 1 and type 2 DM was clearly made. 2 Type 2 DM was first described as a component of metabolic syndrome in 1988. 3 Type 2 DM (formerly known as non-insulin dependent DM) is the most common form of DM characterized by hyperglycemia, insulin resistance, and relative insulin deficiency. 4 Type 2 DM results from interaction between genetic, environmental and behavioral risk factors. 5 , 6

People living with type 2 DM are more vulnerable to various forms of both short- and long-term complications, which often lead to their premature death. This tendency of increased morbidity and mortality is seen in patients with type 2 DM because of the commonness of this type of DM, its insidious onset and late recognition, especially in resource-poor developing countries like Africa. 7

Epidemiology

It is estimated that 366 million people had DM in 2011; by 2030 this would have risen to 552 million. 8 The number of people with type 2 DM is increasing in every country with 80% of people with DM living in low- and middle-income countries. DM caused 4.6 million deaths in 2011. 8 It is estimated that 439 million people would have type 2 DM by the year 2030. 9 The incidence of type 2 DM varies substantially from one geographical region to the other as a result of environmental and lifestyle risk factors. 10

Literature search has shown that there are few data available on the prevalence of type 2 DM in Africa as a whole. Studies examining data trends within Africa point to evidence of a dramatic increase in prevalence in both rural and urban setting, and affecting both gender equally. 11

The majority of the DM burden in Africa appears to be type 2 DM, with less than 10% of DM cases being type 1 DM. 11 A 2011 Centre for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) report estimates that DM affects about 25.8 million people in the US (7.8% of the population) in 2010 with 90% to 95% of them being type 2 DM. 12

It is predicted that the prevalence of DM in adults of which type 2 DM is becoming prominent will increase in the next two decades and much of the increase will occur in developing countries where the majority of patients are aged between 45 and 64 years. 13 It is projected that the latter will equal or even exceed the former in developing nations, thus culminating in a double burden as a result of the current trend of transition from communicable to non-communicable diseases. 14

Lifestyle, Genetics, and Medical Conditions

Type 2 DM is due primarily to lifestyle factors and genetics. 15 A number of lifestyle factors are known to be important to the development of type 2 DM. These are physical inactivity, sedentary lifestyle, cigarette smoking and generous consumption of alcohol. 16 Obesity has been found to contribute to approximately 55% of cases of type 2 DM. 17 The increased rate of childhood obesity between the 1960s and 2000s is believed to have led to the increase in type 2 DM in children and adolescents. 18 Environmental toxins may contribute to the recent increases in the rate of type 2 DM. A weak positive correlation has been found between the concentration in the urine of bisphenol A, a constituent of some plastics, and the incidence of type 2 DM. 19

There is a strong inheritable genetic connection in type 2 DM, having relatives (especially first degree) with type 2 DM increases the risks of developing type 2 DM substantially. Concordance among monozygotic twins is close to 100%, and about 25% of those with the disease have a family history of DM. 20 Recently, genes discovered to be significantly associated with developing type 2 DM, include TCF7L2 , PPARG , FTO , KCNJ11 , NOTCH2 , WFS1 , CDKAL1 , IGF2BP2 , SLC30A8 , JAZF1 , and HHEX . KCNJ11 (potassium inwardly rectifying channel, subfamily J, member 11), encodes the islet ATP-sensitive potassium channel Kir6.2, and TCF7L2 (transcription factor 7-like 2) regulates proglucagon gene expression and thus the production of glucagon-like peptide-1. 21 Moreover, obesity (which is an independent risk factor for type 2 DM) is strongly inherited. 22 Monogenic forms like Maturity-onset diabetes of the young (MODY), constitutes up to 5% of cases. 23 There are many medical conditions which can potentially give rise to, or exacerbate type 2 DM. These include obesity, hypertension, elevated cholesterol (combined hyperlipidemia), and with the condition often termed metabolic syndrome (it is also known as Syndrome X, Reaven's syndrome). 24 Other causes include acromegaly, Cushing's syndrome, thyrotoxicosis, pheochromocytoma, chronic pancreatitis, cancer, and drugs. 25 Additional factors found to increase the risk of type 2 DM include aging, 26 high-fat diets, and a less active lifestyle. 27

Pathophysiology

Type 2 DM is characterized by insulin insensitivity as a result of insulin resistance, declining insulin production, and eventual pancreatic beta-cell failure. 28 , 29 This leads to a decrease in glucose transport into the liver, muscle cells, and fat cells. There is an increase in the breakdown of fat with hyperglycemia. The involvement of impaired alpha-cell function has recently been recognized in the pathophysiology of type 2 DM. 30

As a result of this dysfunction, glucagon and hepatic glucose levels that rise during fasting are not suppressed with a meal. Given inadequate levels of insulin and increased insulin resistance, hyperglycemia results. The incretins are important gut mediators of insulin release, and in the case of GLP-1, of glucagon suppression. Although GIP activity is impaired in those with type 2 DM, GLP-1 insulinotropic effects are preserved, and thus GLP-1 represents a potentially beneficial therapeutic option. 30 However, like GIP; GLP-1 is rapidly inactivated by DPP-IV in vivo.

Two therapeutic approaches to this problem have been developed: GLP-1 analogues with increased half-lives, and DPP-IV inhibitors, which prevent the breakdown of endogenous GLP-1 as well as GIP. 30 Both classes of agents have shown promise, with potential not only to normalize fasting and postprandial glucose levels but also to improve beta-cell functioning and mass. Studies are ongoing on the role of mitochondrial dysfunction in the development of insulin resistance and etiology of type 2 DM. 31 Also very important is adipose tissue, as endocrine organ hypothesis (secretion of various adipocytokines, i.e., leptin, TNF-alpha, resistin, and adiponectin implicated in insulin resistance and possibly beta-cell dysfunction). 30

A majority of individuals suffering from type 2 DM are obese, with central visceral adiposity. Therefore, the adipose tissue plays a crucial role in the pathogenesis of type 2 DM. Although the predominant theory used to explain this link is the portal/visceral hypothesis giving a key role in elevated non-esterified fatty acid concentrations, two new emerging theories are the ectopic fat storage syndrome (deposition of triglycerides in muscle, liver and pancreatic cells). These two hypotheses constitute the framework for the study of the interplay between insulin resistance and beta-cell dysfunction in type 2 DM as well as between our obesogenic environment and DM risk in the next decade. 30

Screening and Diagnosis

Tests for screening and diagnosis of DM are readily available. The test recommended for screening is the same as that for making diagnosis, with the result that a positive screen is equivalent to a diagnosis of pre-diabetes or DM. 32 Although about 25% of patients with type 2 DM already have microvascular complications at the time of diagnosis suggesting that they have had the disease for more than 5 years at the time of diagnosis. 33 It is still based on the American Diabetic Association (ADA) guidelines of 1997 or World Health Organization (WHO) National diabetic group criteria of 2006, which is for a single raised glucose reading with symptoms (polyuria, polydipsia, polyphagia and weight loss), otherwise raised values on two occasions, of either fasting plasma glucose (FPG) ³7.0 mmol/L (126 mg/dL) or with an oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT), two hours after the oral dose a plasma glucose ³11.1 mmol/L (200 mg/dL). 32

The 1997 ADA recommendations for diagnosis of DM focus on the FPG, while WHO focuses on the OGTT. 32 The glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c) and fructosamine is also still useful for determining blood sugar control over time. However, practicing physicians frequently employ other measures in addition to those recommended. In July 2009, the International Expert Committee (IEC) recommended the additional diagnostic criteria of an HbA1c result ³6.5% for DM. This committee suggested that the use of the term pre-diabetes may be phased out but identified the range of HbA1c levels ³6.0% and <6.5% to identify those at high risk of developing DM. 34

As with the glucose-based tests, there is no definite threshold of HbA1c at which normality ends and DM begins. 32 The IEC has elected to recommend a cut-off point for DM diagnosis that emphasizes specificity, commenting that this balanced the stigma and cost of mistakenly identifying individuals as diabetic against the minimal clinical consequences of delaying the diagnosis in a patient with an HbA1c level <6.5%. 34

Through lifestyle and diet modification. Studies have shown that there was significant reduction in the incidence of type 2 DM with a combination of maintenance of body mass index of 25 kg/m 2 , eating high fibre and unsaturated fat and diet low in saturated and trans-fats and glycemic index, regular exercise, abstinence from smoking and moderate consumption of alcohol. 5 , 16 , 35 - 37 Suggesting that majority of type 2 DM can be prevented by lifestyle modification. Patients with type 2 DM should receive a medical nutrition evaluation; lifestyle recommendations should be tailored according to physical and functional ability. 38

Pharmacological Agents

Biguanides, of which metformin is the most commonly used in overweight and obese patients, suppresses hepatic glucose production, increases insulin sensitivity, enhances glucose uptake by phosphorylating GLUT-enhancer factor, increases fatty acid oxidation, and decreases the absorption of glucose from the gastrointestinal tract. 39 Research published in 2008 shows further mechanism of action of metformin as activation of AMP-activated protein kinase, an enzyme that plays a role in the expression of hepatic gluconeogenic genes. 40 Due to the concern of development of lactic acidosis, metformin should be used with caution in elderly diabetic individuals with renal impairment. It has a low incidence of hypoglycemia compared to sulfonylureas. 39

Sulfonylureas

These generally well tolerated but because they stimulate endogenous insulin secretion, they carry a risk of hypoglycemia. 38 Elderly patients, with DM who are treated with sulfonylureas have a 36% increased risk of hypoglycemia compared to younger patients. 41 Glyburide is associated with higher rates of hypoglycemia compared to glipizide. 42 Some of the risk factors for hypoglycemia are age-related impaired renal function, simultaneous use of insulin or insulin sensitizers, age greater than 60 years, recent hospital discharge, alcohol abuse, caloric restriction, multiple medications or medications that potentiate sulfonylurea actions. 43 Use of long acting sulfonylurea such as glyburide should be avoided in elderly patients with DM and use of short-acting glipizide should be preferred. 38

Meglitinides

Repaglinide and nateglinide are non-sulfonylurea secretagogues which act on the ATP-dependent K-channel in the pancreatic beta cells thereby stimulating the release of insulin from the beta cells, similar to sulfonylurea, though the binding site is different. 44 Meglitinides have a rapid onset and a short duration of action (4-6 hrs) and thus lower risk of hypoglycemia. Meglitinides are given before meals for postprandial blood glucose control. Pre-prandial administration allows flexibility in case a meal is missed without increased risk of hypoglycemia. 45 Repaglinide is mainly metabolized in the liver with very minimal amounts excreted via the kidneys and thus dose adjustment is not necessary in patients with renal insufficiency except those with end-stage renal disease. 44

Thiazolidinediones

Thiazolidinedione is an insulin sensitizer, selective ligands transcription factor peroxisomes proliferator-activated gamma. They are the first drugs to address the basic problem of insulin resistance in type 2 DM patients, 46 whose class now includes mainly pioglitazone after the restricted use of rosiglitazone recommended by Food and Drug Administration (FDA) recently due to increased cardiovascular events reported with rosiglitazone. 36 Pioglitazone use is not associated with hypoglycemia and can be used in cases of renal impairment and thus well tolerated in older adults. On the other hand, due to concerns regarding peripheral edema, fluid retention and fracture risk in women, its use can be limited in older adults with DM. Pioglitazone should be avoided in elderly patients with congestive heart failure and is contraindicated in patients with class III-IV heart failure. 47

Alpha-Glucosidase Inhibitors

Acarbose, Voglibose and Miglitol have not widely been used to treat type 2 DM individuals but are likely to be safe and effective. These agents are most effective for postprandial hyperglycemia and should be avoided in patients with significant renal impairment. Their use is usually limited due to high rates of side-effects such as diarrhoea and flatulence. 38 Voglibose, which is the newest of the drugs, has been shown in a study to significantly improve glucose tolerance, in terms of delayed disease progression and in the number of patients who achieved normoglycemia. 48

Incretin-Based Therapies

Glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1) analogues are the foundation of incretin-based therapies which are to target this previously unrecognized feature of DM pathophysiology resulting in sustained improvements in glycemic control and improved body weight control. 49 They are available for use as monotherapy, as an adjunct to diet and exercise or in combination with oral hypoglycemic agents in adults with type 2 DM. Examples are Exenatide, an incretin mimetic, and Liraglutide. 38

There is no risk of hypoglycemia with the use of GLP-1 therapies (unless combined with insulin secretagogues). In addition, emerging evidence suggests incretin-based therapies may have a positive impact on inflammation, cardiovascular and hepatic health, sleep, and the central nervous system. 49

Dipeptidyl-Peptidase IV Inhibitors

Dipeptidyl-peptidase (DPP) IV inhibitors inhibit dipeptidyl peptidase-4 (DPP-4), a ubiquitous enzyme that rapidly inactivates both GLP-1 and GIP, increase active levels of these hormones and, in doing so, improves islet function and glycemic control in type 2 DM. 50 DPP-4 inhibitors are a new class of anti-diabetogenic drugs that provide comparable efficacy to current treatments. They are effective as monotherapy in patients inadequately controlled with diet and exercise and as add-on therapy in combination with metformin, thiazolidinediones, and insulin. The DPP-4 inhibitors are well tolerated, carry a low risk of producing hypoglycemia and are weight neutral. However, they are relatively expensive. 50 The long-term durability of effect on glycemic control and beta-cell morphology and function remain to be established. 50 , 51

Insulin is used alone or in combination with oral hypoglycemic agents. Augmentation therapy with basal insulin is useful if some beta cell function remains. Replacement of basal-bolus insulin is necessary if beta cell exhaustion occurs. Rescue therapy using replacement is necessary in cases of glucose toxicity which should mimic the normal release of insulin by the beta cells of the pancreas. 52 Insulin comes in injectable forms - rapid acting, short acting, intermediate acting and long acting. The long acting forms are less likely to cause hypoglycemia compared to the short acting forms.

Insulin analogues

Insulin therapy was limited in its ability to mimic normal physiologic insulin secretion. Traditional intermediate- and long-acting insulins (NPH insulin, lente insulin, and ultralente insulin) are limited by inconsistent absorption and peaks of action that may result in hypoglycemia. 53 , 54 The pharmacokinetic profiles of the new insulin analogues are distinct from those of the regular insulins, and their onset and durations of action range from rapid to prolonged. Currently, two rapid-acting insulin analogues, insulin lispro and insulin aspart, and one long-acting insulin analogue, insulin glargine, are available. 53 , 54

Future in Drug Therapy Inhaled Insulin

The inhaled form of rapidly acting insulin which became available in 2006, 55 after it was approved by both the European Medicines Evaluation Agency and FDA for treatment of type 1 and type 2 DM in adults. 55 - 57 It is a rapid acting form of insulin that was indicated for use in adults with type 1 and type 2 DM and has the advantage of delivery directly into the lungs. Studies have however shown that inhaled insulin is as effective as, but not better than short acting insulin. 55 It was withdrawn from the market by the manufacturer in October 2007 due to poor sales.

Bromocriptine

Quick-release bromocriptine has recently been developed for the treatment of type 2 DM. However, the mechanism of action is not clear. Studies have shown that they reduce the mean HbA1c levels by 0.0% to 0.2% after 24 weeks of therapy. 58

Inhibitors of the sodium-glucose cotransporter 2, which increase renal glucose elimination, and inhibitors of 11ß-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase 1, which reduce the glucocorticoid effects in liver and fat. Insulin-releasing glucokinase activators and pancreatic-G-protein-coupled fatty-acid-receptor agonists, glucagon-receptor antagonists, and metabolic inhibitors of hepatic glucose output are being assessed for the purpose of development of new drug therapy for type 2 diabetic patients. 59

Type 2 DM is a metabolic disease that can be prevented through lifestyle modification, diet control, and control of overweight and obesity. Education of the populace is still key to the control of this emerging epidemic. Novel drugs are being developed, yet no cure is available in sight for the disease, despite new insight into the pathophysiology of the disease. Management should be tailored to improve the quality of life of individuals with type 2 DM.

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Type 2 diabetes

Affiliations.

1 Diabetes Research Centre, University of Leicester and the Leicester NIHR Biomedical Research Centre, Leicester General Hospital, Leicester, UK.
2 Department of Internal Medicine, Seoul National University Bundang Hospital, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seongnam, South Korea.
3 Family Medicine Department, Korle Bu Teaching Hospital, Accra Ghana and Community Health Department, University of Ghana Medical School, Accra, Ghana.
4 Diabetes Research Centre, University of Leicester and the Leicester NIHR Biomedical Research Centre, Leicester General Hospital, Leicester, UK. Electronic address: [email protected].
PMID: 36332637
DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(22)01655-5

Type 2 diabetes accounts for nearly 90% of the approximately 537 million cases of diabetes worldwide. The number affected is increasing rapidly with alarming trends in children and young adults (up to age 40 years). Early detection and proactive management are crucial for prevention and mitigation of microvascular and macrovascular complications and mortality burden. Access to novel therapies improves person-centred outcomes beyond glycaemic control. Precision medicine, including multiomics and pharmacogenomics, hold promise to enhance understanding of disease heterogeneity, leading to targeted therapies. Technology might improve outcomes, but its potential is yet to be realised. Despite advances, substantial barriers to changing the course of the epidemic remain. This Seminar offers a clinically focused review of the recent developments in type 2 diabetes care including controversies and future directions.

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Conflict of interest statement

Declaration of interests EA has received fellowship funding from AstraZeneca. SL has been a member on advisory boards or has consulted with Merck Sharp & Dohme, and NovoNordisk. He has received grant support from AstraZeneca, Merck Sharp & Dohme, and Astellas. He has also served on the speakers' bureau of AstraZeneca, Boehringer Ingelheim, Eli Lilly & Co, Merck Sharp & Dohme, Chong Kun Dang Pharmaceutical, and Novo Nordisk. RL has received a research grant from Novo Nordisk. She has also received funds for serving on an advisory board for Sanofi and consultancy fees from Sanofi, AstraZeneca, Novo Nordisk, and Boehringer Ingelheim. DRW has received honoraria as a speaker for AstraZeneca, Sanofi-Aventis, and Lilly, and received research funding support from Novo Nordisk. MJD has acted as consultant, advisory board member, and speaker for Boehringer Ingelheim, Lilly, Novo Nordisk, and Sanofi; an advisory board member and speaker for AstraZeneca; an advisory board member for Janssen, Lexicon, Pfizer, and ShouTi Pharma; and as a speaker for Napp Pharmaceuticals, Novartis, and Takeda Pharmaceuticals International. She has received grants in support of investigator and investigator-initiated trials from Novo Nordisk, Sanofi-Aventis, Lilly, Boehringer Ingelheim, AstraZeneca, and Janssen.

Cancer is becoming the leading cause of death in diabetes. Wang M, Sperrin M, Rutter MK, Renehan AG. Wang M, et al. Lancet. 2023 Jun 3;401(10391):1849. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(23)00445-2. Lancet. 2023. PMID: 37270233 No abstract available.

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Type 2 Diabetes: Prevention and Education Essay

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Most people believe that type 2 diabetes is a disease of older people. However, in recent years, more and more young people have been diagnosed with Type 2 diabetes, which is usually associated with inadequate diet and lack of physical activity (Serbis et al., 2021). For this reason, prevention and education of adolescents and young people about diabetes are a necessity. Schillinger et al. (2018) came to the same conclusion; thus, their findings on the study of the Bigger Picture (TBP) campaign effectiveness among youth of color are necessary to explore diabetes prevention.

The first helpful idea that the authors suggest is how to motivate young people in disease prevention. Schillinger et al. (2018) say that long-term healthcare perspectives are weak motivators for adolescents while giving young people self-reliance. The ability to take the initiative and challenge authorities is more effective. In other words, older people require individual motivation, while youth is receptive to collective action (Cartagena et al., 2021; Schillinger et al., 2018). For this reason, the Bigger Picture (TBP) was shown to be effective among the participants as they perceived social and economic barriers more as the cause of Type 2 diabetes and communicated the need to confront them. At the same time, respondents also noted the importance of the individual choice of a healthy lifestyle. In addition, highlighted barriers such as unhealthy diets due to low family income, limited access to farm shops, and the promotion of unhealthy food are also useful information for learning about diabetes prevention. Consequently, these findings on youth motivation, individual and structural barriers, and the effectiveness of The Bigger Picture (TBP) will be used to research the topic of diabetes prevention and its complications and formulate recommendations.

Cartagena, V.M., Tort-Nasarre, G., & Rubinat Arnaldo, E. (2021). Barriers and facilitators for physical activity in adults with type 2 diabetes mellitus: A scoping review . International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health , 18 (10), 1-16.

Schillinger, D., Tran, J., & Fine, S. (2018). Do low-income youth of color see “The Bigger Picture” when discussing type 2 diabetes: A qualitative evaluation of a public health literacy campaign? International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 15 (5), 1-14.

Serbis, A., Giapros, V., Kotanidou, E.P., Galli-Tsinopoulou, A., & Siomou, E. (2021). Diagnosis, treatment and prevention of type 2 diabetes mellitus in children and adolescents. World Journal of Diabetes, 12 (4), 344-365.

The Diabetes Prevention Articles by Ford and Mathe
The Prevention of Diabetes and Its Consequences on the Population
Environmental Security as an Approach to Threats Posed by Global Environmental Change
Ralph Emerson' Views on Self-Reliance
Solitude Before Society: Emerson on Self-Reliance, Abolitionism, and Moral Suasion
Type 2 Diabetes in Hispanic Americans
Diabetes Mellitus as Problem in US Healthcare
Prediabetes in the African-American Population
Diabetes Mellitus: Causes and Health Challenges
Diabetes in Adults in Oxfordshire
Chicago (A-D)
Chicago (N-B)

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Type 2 Diabetes - Free Essay Examples And Topic Ideas

Type 2 Diabetes is a chronic condition that affects the way the body processes blood sugar (glucose). Essays could explore the risk factors, prevention strategies, and management of Type 2 Diabetes. Discussions on its socioeconomic impact and the challenges in managing this condition in various healthcare settings could also be enlightening. We have collected a large number of free essay examples about Type 2 Diabetes you can find at PapersOwl Website. You can use our samples for inspiration to write your own essay, research paper, or just to explore a new topic for yourself.

Type 2 Diabetes in America

As we know, America today has become more and more obese. Americans are eating more calories a day than ever before. With increased calorie consumption there is increased carbohydrate consumption. This increased carbohydrate consumption has led to an increase in diabetes in not only adults but children and adolescences as well. Previously type 2 diabetes was very uncommon in children but with the recent increase in calorie intake it has become more prevalent. Type 2 diabetes is preventable. Type 2 […]

A Problem of Hispanics with Diabetes

Introduction The health care industry changes each and every year. Making America a very diverse nation and with diversity many issues present itself in today's society. One of the main issues that is affecting society is the prevalence of Type 2 Diabetes in Hispanics. The purpose of this paper is to provide cultural information and awareness of this issue with ways to assist in the prevention of Diabetes. Knowledge about diabetes is very important and sometimes there is not enough […]

General Characteristic of Type II Diabetes

Type 2 Diabetes Background about the disease- Type 2 Diabetes is a disorder caused by an imbalance of insulin. It is the more common form of diabetes, mostly seen in adults but now increasingly observed in young adults as well. Also known as non-insulin-dependent diabetes, this lifelong disease causes your blood glucose level to rise above the normal range. Pathophysiology and causes- Type 2 diabetes stems from several factors. It can develop when your body becomes resistant to insulin or […]

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History and Types of Diabetes

The first sign of diabetes was discovered in 1500 B.C.E by the Egyptians. According to one study, ancient Indians were familiar with the condition and had even determined two types of the condition. They called it "honey urine" and tested for it by determining if the ants were drawn to the urine. The first mention of the word diabetes was by the Greeks. It means "to go through", it was named this because of its main symptom: the excessive passing […]

Growing Problem of Diabetes

As today's youth grows, health and physical activity haves slowly been shifted to the back of people's thoughts. Everyday life can become busy and the quickest and easiest option is to grab an unhealthy snack or meal for the family or as an individual. Proper nutrition and exercise are the main components to creating a better and healthier lifestyle. In today's society there is an overt disregard in the choices made as a part of a routine which include daily […]

The Basic Problem of Diabetes

Uncontrolled levels of blood glucose are the basic problem in patients admitted to our unit. Many are related to lack of knowledge and self-care in diabetes management, sedentary lifestyle, and food habits. This reveals that when assessing a patient in the hospital, a nurse must consider all factors and design a care plan accordingly. Nurses need to be non-judgmental and assess what factors may limit patients' abilities to follow lifestyle recommendations. According to the American Diabetes Association (ADA), uncontrolled blood […]

Characteristic of Type Two Diabetes

Diabetes is a very harsh form of a metabolic dysfunction which is tagged by an increased level of blood glucose. These increased levels of blood glucose could be from many things but two main things are the deficiency in the production of insulin and deficiency in the use of insulin to transport glucose from the blood into the tissue [insulin and insulin resistance]. There are two types of diabetes, type one and two that are the commonly known types in […]

Diabetes and its Main Types

Diabetes is a disorder of the endocrine system, which messes with the metabolism of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins. The metabolism is compromised because of a lack of insulin, either from destruction of the beta cells, which secrete insulin, or because of insulin resistance. Insulin is secreted by beta cells and it is what enables the cells to use glucose. Type 1 diabetes was formerly called juvenile diabetes because mostly kids were diagnosed with it. It is now changed to be […]

Why you should Learn about Diabetes

Auntie Jeanette is the second oldest out of ten children. She is a loving mother, auntie, and daughter. She is well-respected in the community and is known for her outstanding cooking. Every Thanksgiving and Christmas, she makes her famous collard greens with hamhocks, fried chicken, corn bread, and pasta salad. Everyone from all over would come just to eat her delicious food. Although this was very good food, it was not the healthiest choice. Consuming so much of these unhealthy […]

Adverse Health Effect of Environmental Heavy Metals on Diabetes

ABSTRACT Type 2 diabetes (T2D) and its complications constitute a major public health problem for both developed and developing countries due to the high rate of morbidity and mortality associated with the disease. New evidence from both experimental and human studies has resulted in increased interest in analyzing the relationship between T2D and heavy metal exposures that are ubiquitous in the environment. Vellore district is a major leather- processing centre in Tamil Nadu, with an estimated 60,000 tannery workers. Tannery […]

What should you Know about Diabetes

What is diabetes? Diabetes is when your blood sugars, or blood glucose, is to high. Your main source of energy is blood glucose, which comes from the food you eat. Your pancreas creates a hormone called insulin. Insulin helps all the glucose from the food you eat get into your body's cells and use it for energy. But in some cases, the body doesn't create enough insulin, sometimes the body doesn't make any insulin at all. If this is the […]

How is Low Carbohydrate Diet Beneficial to Diabetes

Abstract: This essay is about the global status of diabetes, what is diabetes, how insulin works, why people easy to have diabetes, what is carbohydrate and why low carbohydrate diet beneficial to the diabetes. With the development of society, people's living standards have gradually improved. The choice of food is gradually becoming more and more, also it has brought us many diseases. Diabetes, as one of the top ten death diseases in the world, has attracted the attention of people […]

Diabetes: One of the Hardest Illness

Diabetes is a standout amongst the most widely recognized maladies that can prompt passing if not treated right. In any case there are particular sorts of this ailment which is Type 1,Type 2, and Gestational diabetes. Diabetes is an illness that happens when your blood glucose, additionally called glucose, is too high. Blood glucose is your fundamental wellspring of significance and begins from the sustenance you eat. Diabetes is the sort of ailment that goes with conspicuous signs with in […]

An Issue of Nutrition and Diabetes

The article I've reviewed is called, "Nutrition Therapy Recommendations for the Management of Adults with Diabetes". My decision to review this article is based upon interest in links with nutrition and chronic disease. A National Center for Health Statistics study (Table 18) identified eight of the top ten killers in America as chronic diseases. I've read multiple books that link the two and this article conducted a systematic review of 228 articles or studies. The article goes fairly in depth […]

Connection between Genetics and Diabetes

Each single person has a specific set of genes; however, these genetics are greatly influenced by their families. Genetics can also be affected via one's environmental surroundings, as well. These genetics are associated with most diseases, such as cancer, kidney diseases, and psychologic diseases. Diabetes is no different. Genetics are not the only causative factor in diabetes, but it can alert healthcare members to look for this disease due to predisposition. According to the American Diabetes Association (2018), "Type 1 […]

Insulin-Dependent Diabetes Mellitus

Diabetes Mellitus 1, more specifically known as IDDM is a disorder concerning glucose homeostasis, which needs insulin therapy is generally seen in children. Diabetes is generally classified into 2 types IDDM (Insulin dependent diabetes mellitus) and the other NIDDM (Non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus). Diabetes simply means an increase of glucose levels in the body as a result of the improper or no production of insulin from ones pancreatic ??-cells. The standard auto-immune response of type 1 diabetes is specific destruction […]

Diabetes and Renal Failure

Diabetes and Renal Failure Introduction This is a research article about prevalence of renal failure and its early detection among patients who have long standing diabetes mellitus. End stage renal disease significantly increases the risk of death and requires expert health care. Although diabetes is the most predominant cause of chronic renal disease, maximum individuals with diabetes are not investigated based on national guidelines. Chronic kidney disease warrants improved detection using standardized criteria to improve outcomes. Proper screening of diabetic […]

What are the Main Causes and Treatments of Diabetes

Diabetes is a chronic disease that can cause complications and death if left untreated. It is one of the most common chronic diseases in the world and affects nearly half of the global population. According to Koye et al. (2018), it is also a leading cause of disability worldwide, affecting more than 300 million people globally. Diabetes is one of the most common diseases in the United States, with more than 100 million adults affected by type 2 diabetes and over 6.3 […]

An Evolution of Diabetes

EVOLUTION Diabetes is a major public health problem with a rapid increase in prevalence globally. Twelve percent of all health care spending is related to diabetes. The diagnosis and treatment of diabetes has evolved extensively over the last century. Although there is still no cure for the disorder, diabetes is much more manageable due to advancement in medicine and technology. In the beginning of the 20th century, Edward Schafer concluded that the pancreas of diabetics was unable to produce insulin […]

Acute Coronary Syndrome

The condition is characterized by pains in the chest and it is typically confirmed inside the hospital or the emergency room. It is also manageable if immediately confirmed. Acute syndrome occurs when plaques inside a narrowed vessel of blood splits causing thrombus development. This will consequently lead to unexpected partial or full blockage. The thrombus may also dislodge from a broken plaque consequently blocking the blood vessels. Explain risk factors Acute coronary syndrome may occur gradually in the long run […]

Child and Adolescent Obesity in the United States

Child and adolescent obesity in the United States has nearly tripled sincethe 70s. About 1 out of every 5 children suffer from childhood obesity. It is the duty ofmothers and fathers to prevent and find solutions to child and adolescent obesity. Thispaper will seek to explain the many causes and current results which parents can execute.Child and adolescent obesity comprises of several likely causes such as poor diet and lowphysical activity including numerous adverse effects. Therefore, changes in familyhousehold structures […]

Treatment of Diabetes in Adolescents

Abstract Background: Diabetes is a significant public health challenge facing the US and several other countries around the world. It is mostly perceived as a lifestyle disease, although type 1 diabetes can be viewed as a congenital autoimmune disorder. Diabetes is increasingly becoming a problem among young adolescents in America, with high prevalence and incidence rates. This study sought to establish the impact of treatment of adolescents for diabetes on their maturity process, demand for independence, parent-adolescent conflict, and their […]

Importance of Nursing Theories

Nursing theories are important tools for the designing, understanding, and application of diabetes patient education (Anderson, Funnell, & Hernandez, 2005). Imogene King is one of the nursing theorists who has made significant contributions to nursing. King's Conceptual Framework and Theory of Goal Attainment (TGA) is valuable in the care of diabetes patients and adherence to treatment. In my unit most commonly-used nursing theories include, King's theory of goal attainment to the care of the adult with diabetes mellitus. TGA theory […]

An Issue of Diabetes and Self-Efficacy

Abstract While self-efficacy is a proven clinical predictor of metabolic and glycemic control among people with poorly controlled Type 1 and Type 2 diabetes (Abubakari et al., 2015), few healthcare systems integrate effective biochemical individual strategies for disease management. Customized clinical meal plans, personalized education, high-intensity interval training (HIIT), and targeted health coaching have demonstrated significant improvement in clinical biomarkers associated with Type 2 diabetes and metabolic syndrome (MetS), including HOMA-IR, triglyceride/HDL ratio, HgA1c, fasting insulin, fasting glucose, fasting triglycerides, […]

A Problem of Diabetes

Low socioeconomic status has previously been associated with type 2 diabetes. Health is not only affected by individual risk factors and behaviors, but also a range of economic circumstances. Primarily, this issue is caused by the underuse or reduced access to recommended preventive care in individuals from low socioeconomic backgrounds. Economic issues inherent in diabetes stem from the fact that economically disadvantaged individuals do not have the support for healthy behaviors. Furthermore, economically disadvantaged individuals may lack access to clinical […]

Importance of Speech about Diabetes

On 14th November this year on World Diabetes Day we witnessed an amazing talk by the keynote speaker Dr. Ronny Bell at the University of Florida. The title of the talk was 'Challenges and Opportunities in achieving diabetes health equity.' He spoke about important issues that often get lost and not given too much importance when we talk about diabetes. He mentioned that we all know about the complications, we all know about the emergencies, but what we often don't […]

My Work as a Nurse

I work at Overlake Hospital Medical Center on a Medical Surgical and Oncology Unit. As a bedside nurse, my job and responsibility not only centered around vigilant monitoring for physiological changes and immediate needs of patients but also centered around an emotional aspect of caring and advocating. Our 37-bed unit provides care for various medical-surgical conditions, chemotherapy infusion, blood transfusion, dialysis, oncology with hospice, and end of life care patients on a day to day basis. As a bedside nurse, […]

My Understanding of Diabetes

For this essay I'll be covering the topic of diabetes. I've always found diabetes as an interesting topic; maybe because it's a huge problem for most people in the United States. you might be wonder what diabetes is, Diabetes is a disease in which the body response to the hormone insulin is impaired or not fully functional, resluting in complications with the metabolism. Having high glucose is also one of the main reasons people get diabetes. Having high glucose in […]

My Research on Diabetes

Diabetes is a type of illness which is metabolic in nature leading to deficiencies in insulin. There are 2 types of diabetes (Type 1 and Type 2). Type 1 Diabetes (5-10% with diabetes), is known to be dependent in insulin, and would usually occur during childhood. This type of diabetes is a result of an autoimmune obliteration of Pancreatic ??-cell function. Another is Type 2 or the non-insulin dependent, correlates for 90-95% of those people with the diabetes. The onset […]

Diabetes Type 2: a Chronic Disease

Diabetes type 2 is a chronic disease which is widespread around the world. According to Mayo Clinic, type 2 diabetes is the most common type of diabetes that occurs due to high blood sugar and the lack of ability of the body to use insulin properly or make enough of it. Diabetes type 2 does not have a cure. However, it can be prevented or delayed. The most common causes of diabetes relate to people's lifestyle and their genetics. Physical […]

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The role of obesity in type 2 diabetes mellitus—an overview.

Graphical Abstract

1. Introduction

2. definitions and epidemiology of obesity and type 2 dm, 3. mechanistic link, 3.1. white and brown adipose tissue, 3.2. adipogenesis and healthy adipose tissue, 3.3. dysfunctional adipogenesis, 3.4. adipose tissue dysfunction and inflammation, 3.5. adiponectin, 3.6. other adipokines and cortisol, 3.7. lipids and free fatty acids, 3.8. distribution of fat and ectopic fat storage, 3.9. disturbances in lipid homeostasis, 4. in vivo models, 5. clinical studies, 6. management.

Obesity is a significant and modifiable risk factor associated with the development and progression of type 2 DM, and the increase in obesity is the primary factor in the recent rise in the prevalence and incidence of type 2 DM.
It is crucial to understand the role of obesity in the pathogenesis of type 2 DM, considering the various factors and complications associated with the condition.
Obesity is a chronic progressive condition characterized by excessive and abnormal fat accumulation in the body, resulting from the consumption of more calories than the body can use, with a Body Mass Index ≥ 30 kg/m 2 .
Type 2 DM is a chronic metabolic condition characterized by insulin resistance where the body is unable to effectively use insulin, leading to high blood glucose levels or hyperglycemia.
Currently, over half a billion people worldwide have been diagnosed with diabetes, and this number is projected to more than double to 1.3 billion in the next 30 years.
According to the World Obesity Federation 2023 atlas, it is predicted that over 51% of the global population will become overweight or obese in the next 12 years.
Obesity and type 2 DM are intertwined in their pathophysiology and molecular mechanisms, influenced by various factors such as adipose tissue, homeostatic factors like adiponectin, body fat distribution, inflammation, free fatty acids, gut microbiome and dyslipidemia. Therefore, it is crucial to understand this close relationship in order to effectively manage and prevent these conditions as an urgent response to their alarming global rise.
Numerous in vivo and clinical studies have highlighted the significance of a comprehensive management approach that addressed both obesity and type 2 DM simultaneously. This approach is essential for effectively handling these chronic and interconnected conditions.

8. Conclusions

Author contributions, institutional review board statement, informed consent statement, data availability statement, acknowledgments, conflicts of interest, abbreviations.

4-HNE	4-hydroxynonenal
ANT2	adenine nucleotide translocase 2
ApoE	apolipoprotein E
BAT	brown adipose tissue
BMI	Body mass index
DIO	diet-induced obesity
DM	diabetes mellitus
ER	endoplasmic reticulum
FGF 21	fibroblast growth factor 21
HbA1c	glycated hemoglobin
IDF	International Diabetes Federation
IL-1β	interleukin-1β
IMCL	intramyocellular lipids
IRS	insulin receptor substrate
LDL	low density lipoprotein(s)
MCP-1	monocyte chemoattractant protein-1
NEFA	non-esterified fatty acids
PAI-1	Plasminogen activator inhibitor-1
RBP4	retinol binding protein 4
ROS	reactive oxygen species
SOCS	suppressor of cytokine signaling
TNF-α	tumor necrosis factor-α
VLDL	very low density lipoprotein(s)
WAT	white adipose tissue

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Click here to enlarge figure

Condition	BMI (kg/m )	Disease Risk Relative to Normal Weight and Waist Circumference Men ≤ 40 inches (≤102 cm) Women ≤ 35 inches (≤88 cm)
Normal	18.5–24.9	data
Overweight	25.0–29.9	Increased
Obese	30.0–34.9 (class 1)	High
Obese	35.0–39.9 (class 2)	Very high
Extremely Obese	≥40	Extremely high

Condition	Males	Females
Essential fat	<15%	<10%
Athletes	15–19%	10–14%
Fit	20–24%	15–19%
Acceptable	25–29%	20–24%
Pre-obesity	30–34%	25–29%
Obesity	>35%	>30%

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Chandrasekaran, P.; Weiskirchen, R. The Role of Obesity in Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus—An Overview. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2024 , 25 , 1882. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms25031882

Chandrasekaran P, Weiskirchen R. The Role of Obesity in Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus—An Overview. International Journal of Molecular Sciences . 2024; 25(3):1882. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms25031882

Chandrasekaran, Preethi, and Ralf Weiskirchen. 2024. "The Role of Obesity in Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus—An Overview" International Journal of Molecular Sciences 25, no. 3: 1882. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms25031882

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Diabetes Overview

What Is Diabetes?

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Diabetes is a disease that occurs when your blood glucose, also called blood sugar, is too high. Glucose is your body’s main source of energy. Your body can make glucose, but glucose also comes from the food you eat.

Insulin is a hormone made by the pancreas that helps glucose get into your cells to be used for energy. If you have diabetes, your body doesn’t make enough—or any—insulin, or doesn’t use insulin properly. Glucose then stays in your blood and doesn’t reach your cells.

Diabetes raises the risk for damage to the eyes, kidneys, nerves, and heart. Diabetes is also linked to some types of cancer. Taking steps to prevent or manage diabetes may lower your risk of developing diabetes health problems.

On the left, a diagram of a blood vessel that has a normal blood glucose level and contains fewer glucose molecules. On the right, a diagram of a blood vessel that has a high blood glucose level and contains more glucose molecules.

What are the different types of diabetes?

The most common types of diabetes are type 1, type 2, and gestational diabetes.

Type 1 diabetes

If you have type 1 diabetes , your body makes little or no insulin. Your immune system attacks and destroys the cells in your pancreas that make insulin. Type 1 diabetes is usually diagnosed in children and young adults, although it can appear at any age. People with type 1 diabetes need to take insulin every day to stay alive.

Type 2 diabetes

If you have type 2 diabetes , the cells in your body don’t use insulin properly. The pancreas may be making insulin but is not making enough insulin to keep your blood glucose level in the normal range. Type 2 diabetes is the most common type of diabetes. You are more likely to develop type 2 diabetes if you have risk factors , such as overweight or obesity , and a family history of the disease. You can develop type 2 diabetes at any age, even during childhood.

You can help delay or prevent type 2 diabetes by knowing the risk factors and taking steps toward a healthier lifestyle, such as losing weight or preventing weight gain.

Gestational diabetes

Gestational diabetes is a type of diabetes that develops during pregnancy. Most of the time, this type of diabetes goes away after the baby is born. However, if you’ve had gestational diabetes, you have a higher chance of developing type 2 diabetes later in life. Sometimes diabetes diagnosed during pregnancy is type 2 diabetes.

Prediabetes

People with prediabetes have blood glucose levels that are higher than normal but not high enough to be diagnosed with type 2 diabetes. If you have prediabetes, you have a higher risk of developing type 2 diabetes in the future. You also have a higher risk for heart disease than people with normal glucose levels.

Other types of diabetes

A less common type of diabetes, called monogenic diabetes , is caused by a change in a single gene . Diabetes can also come from having surgery to remove the pancreas, or from damage to the pancreas due to conditions such as cystic fibrosis or pancreatitis .

How common are diabetes and prediabetes?

More than 133 million Americans have diabetes or prediabetes. 1

As of 2019, 37.3 million people—or 11.3% of the U.S. population—had diabetes. 1 More than 1 in 4 people over the age of 65 had diabetes. Nearly 1 in 4 adults with diabetes didn’t know they had the disease. 2

About 90% to 95% of diabetes cases are type 2 diabetes. 3

In 2019, 96 million adults—38% of U.S. adults—had prediabetes. 4

What other health problems can people with diabetes develop?

Over time, high blood glucose can damage your heart , kidneys , feet , and eyes . If you have diabetes, you can take steps to lower your chances of developing diabetes health problems by taking steps to improve your health and learning how to manage the disease . Managing your blood glucose, blood pressure, and cholesterol levels can help prevent future health problems.

Doctor using a special device to check the inside of a patient’s eye.

This content is provided as a service of the National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK), part of the National Institutes of Health. NIDDK translates and disseminates research findings to increase knowledge and understanding about health and disease among patients, health professionals, and the public. Content produced by NIDDK is carefully reviewed by NIDDK scientists and other experts.

NIDDK would like to thank: Daniel Bessesen, M.D., University of Colorado; Domenico Accili, M.D., Columbia University

Home — Essay Samples — Nursing & Health — Diabetes — The Type 1 and Type 2 Diabetes

The Type 1 and Type 2 Diabetes

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Published: Jan 29, 2019

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Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: A Review of Current Trends

Olusegun A. Obateru

Lateefat B. Olokoba

Introduction

Epidemiology

Lifestyle, Genetics, and Medical Conditions

Pathophysiology

Screening and Diagnosis

Pharmacological Agents

Sulfonylureas

Meglitinides

Thiazolidinediones

Alpha-Glucosidase Inhibitors

Incretin-Based Therapies

Dipeptidyl-Peptidase IV Inhibitors

Insulin analogues

Future in Drug Therapy Inhaled Insulin

Bromocriptine

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Type 2 diabetes

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