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• What Is Participant Observation? | Definition & Examples

What Is Participant Observation? | Definition & Examples

Published on March 10, 2023 by Tegan George .

Participant observation is a research method where the researcher immerses themself in a particular social setting or group, observing the behaviors, interactions, and practices of the participants. This can be a valuable method for any research project that seeks to understand the experiences of individuals or groups in a particular social context.

In participant observation, the researcher is called a participant-observer , meaning that they participate in the group’s activities while also observing the group’s behavior and interactions. There is flexibility in the level of participation, ranging from non-participatory (the weakest) to complete participation (the strongest but most intensive.) The goal here is to gain a deep understanding of the group’s culture, beliefs, and practices from an “insider” perspective.

You immerse yourself in this subculture by spending time at skateparks, attending skateboarding events, and engaging with skateboarders. Perhaps you may even learn to skateboard yourself, in order to better understand the experiences of your study participants.

As you observe, you take notes on the behavior, language, norms, and values you witness and also conduct informal unstructured interviews with individual skateboarders to gain further insight into their thoughts and lived experiences.

Typically used in fields like anthropology, sociology, and other social sciences, this method is often used to gather rich and detailed data about social groups or phenomena through ethnographies or other qualitative research .

Table of contents

When to use participant observation, examples of participant observation, how to analyze data from participant observation, advantages and disadvantages of participant observations, other types of research bias, frequently asked questions.

Participant observation is a type of observational study . Like most observational studies, these are primarily qualitative in nature, used to conduct both explanatory research and exploratory research . Participant observation is also often used in conjunction with other types of research, like interviews and surveys .

This type of study is especially well suited for studying social phenomena that are difficult to observe or measure through other methods. As the researcher observes, they typically take detailed notes about their observations and interactions with the group. These are then analyzed to identify patterns and themes using thematic analysis or a similar method.

A participant observation could be a good fit for your research if:

• You are studying subcultures or groups with unique practices or beliefs. Participant observation fosters a deep and intimate understanding of the beliefs, values, and practices of your group or subculture of interest from an insider’s perspective. This can be especially useful when studying marginalized groups or groups that are resistant to observation.
• You are studying complex social interactions . Participant observation can be a powerful tool for studying the complex social interactions that occur within a particular group or community. By immersing yourself in the group and observing these interactions firsthand, you can gain a much more nuanced understanding of how these interactions flow.
• You are studying behaviors or practices that may be difficult to self-report . In some cases, participants may be unwilling or unable to accurately report their own behaviors or practices. Participant observation allows researchers to observe these behaviors directly, allowing for more accuracy in the data collection phase.

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Participant observation is a common research method in social sciences, with findings often published in research reports used to inform policymakers or other stakeholders.

Over the course of several months, you observe and take notes on the social interactions, customs, and beliefs of the community members, conducting informal interviews with individual residents to gain further insight into their experiences and perspectives. Through your observations, you gain a deep understanding of the community’s culture, including its values, traditions, and social hierarchy.

Participant observations are often also used in sociology to study social groups and related phenomena, like group formation, stratification, or conflict resolution.

Through this participant observation, you soon see that the group is highly stratified, with certain individuals occupying positions of social power and others being marginalized or even largely excluded. You also observe patterns of conformity within the group, alongside complex interpersonal dynamics.

Data analysis in participant observation typically involves a step-by-step process of immersion, categorization, and interpretation.

• After finishing up your observations, you read through your field notes or transcripts multiple times in the immersion phase. This helps you reflect on what you studied, and is well paired with conducting data cleansing to ensure everything is clear and correct prior to proceeding.
• You then create categories or themes to organize the data. This helps with identifying patterns, behaviors, and interactions relevant to your research question or study aims. In turn, these categories help you to form a coding system that labels or “tags” the aspects of the data that you want to focus on. These can be specific behaviors, emotions, or social interactions—whatever helps you to identify connections between different elements of your data.
• Next, your data can be analyzed using a variety of qualitative research methods, such as thematic analysis , grounded theory, or discourse analysis using the coded categories you created. This helps you interpret the data and develop further theories. You may also want to use triangulation , comparing data from multiple sources or methods, to bolster the reliability and validity of your findings.
• Lastly, it’s always a good research practice to seek feedback on your findings from other researchers in your field of study, as well as members of the group you studied. This helps to ensure the accuracy and reliability of your analysis and can mitigate some potential research biases .

Participant observations are a strong fit for some research projects, but with their advantages come their share of disadvantages as well.

Advantages of participant observations

• Participant observations allow you to generate rich and nuanced qualitative data —particularly useful when seeking to develop a deep understanding of a particular social context or experience. By immersing yourself in the group, you can gain an unrivaled insider perspective on the group’s beliefs, values, and practices.
• Participant observation is a flexible research method that can be adapted to fit a variety of research questions and contexts. Metrics like level of participation in the group, the length of the observation period, and the types of data collected all can be adjusted based on research goals and timeline.
• Participant observation is often used in combination with other research methods, such as interviews or surveys , to provide a more complete picture of the phenomenon being studied. This triangulation can help to improve the reliability and validity of the research findings, as participant observations are not particularly strong as a standalone method.

Disadvantages of participant observations

• Like many observational studies, participant observations are at high risk for many research biases , particularly on the side of the researcher. Because participant observation involves the researcher immersing themselves in the group being studied, there is a risk that their own biases could influence the data they collect, leading to observer bias . Likewise, the presence of a researcher in the group being studied can potentially influence the behavior of the participants. This can lead to inaccurate or biased data if participants alter their behavior in response to the researcher’s presence, leading to a Hawthorne effect or social desirability bias .
• Participant observations can be very expensive, time-consuming, and challenging to carry out. They often require a long period of time to build trust and gather sufficient data, with the data usually collected in an intensive, in-person manner. Some participant observations take generations to complete, which can make it difficult to conduct studies with limited time or resources.
• Participant observation can raise ethical concerns , requiring measured ethical consideration on the part of the researcher with regard to informed consent, privacy, and confidentiality. The researcher must take care to protect the privacy and autonomy of the participants and ensure that they are not placed at undue risk by the research.

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• Confirmation bias
• Baader–Meinhof phenomenon
• Availability heuristic
• Halo effect
• Hindsight bias
• Ingroup bias
• Outgroup bias
• Perception bias
• Framing effect
• Self-serving bias
• Affect heuristic
• Representativeness heuristic
• Anchoring heuristic
• Primacy bias
• Optimism bias
• Sampling bias
• Ascertainment bias
• Attrition bias
• Self-selection bias
• Survivorship bias
• Nonresponse bias
• Undercoverage bias
• Hawthorne effect
• Observer bias
• Omitted variable bias
• Publication bias
• Conformity bias
• Pygmalion effect
• Recall bias
• Social desirability bias
• Placebo effect
• Actor-observer bias
• Ceiling effect
• Ecological fallacy
• Affinity bias

Ethical considerations in participant observation involve:

• Obtaining informed consent from all participants
• Protecting their privacy and confidentiality
• Ensuring that they are not placed at undue risk by the research, and
• Respecting their autonomy and agency as participants

Researchers should also consider the potential impact of their research on the community being studied and take steps to minimize any negative after-effects.

Participant observation is a type of qualitative research method . It involves active participation on the part of the researcher in the group being studied, usually over a longer period of time.

Other qualitative research methods, such as interviews or focus groups , do not involve the same level of immersion in the research and can be conducted in a less intense manner.

In participant observation , the researcher plays an active role in the social phenomenon, group, or social context being studied. They may move into the community, attend events or activities, or even take on specific roles within the group— fully joining the community over the course of the study. However, the researcher also maintains an observer role here, taking notes on the behavior and interactions of the participants to draw conclusions and guide further research.

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15 Participant Observation Examples

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Participant observation is research method where the researcher not only observes the research subjects, but also actively engages in the activities of the subjects (Musante & DeWalt, 2010; Kawulich, 2005). They are both observing and participating .

This method is particularly useful in the social sciences, where researchers aim to understand complex socio-cultural phenomena from an insider’s view. This can involve long-term immersion in the field to gather detailed and nuanced data.

Participant Observation Examples

1. Workplace Observation A researcher studying the dynamics of a corporation might take a job within the company. This way, they can observe the corporate culture, hierarchies, office dynamics, and interactions in their natural settings from an employee’s perspective.

Sample Study: Among the agilists: participant observation in a rapidly evolving workplace

Brief Explanation: This participant observation study discussed in this paper focused on researchers embedding themselves within an agile software development community. They aimed to understand how this community works and evolves over time. The researchers used methods like interviews and close interaction to gain insights.

Citation: Kumar, S., & Wallace, C. (2016, May). Among the agilists: participant observation in a rapidly evolving workplace. In  Proceedings of the 9th International Workshop on Cooperative and Human Aspects of Software Engineering  (pp. 52-55).

2. Cultural Immersion A researcher moves to a foreign country or unfamiliar community, immersing themselves in the new culture. They observe social customs, languages, and day-to-day activities to understand the group’s socio-cultural practices.

3. Formal or Informal Group Meetings A researcher might participate in group meetings (civic organizations, religious bodies, support groups, etc.) to observe group dynamics, decision-making processes, or the impacts and implementation of collective regulations.

4. Online Groups A researcher might join an online community, game, or forum to understand the virtual behaviors, online social interactions, dynamics, etiquette, and patterns. This is often a part of ‘digital ethnography’.

Sample Study: Legitimate Peripheral Participation by Novices in a Dungeons and Dragons Community

Brief Explanation: This participant observation study focused on how new players learn to join the Dungeons & Dragons (D&D) community and culture. The researchers watched and interviewed both experienced and new players to understand how novices become part of the D&D world. They found that some novices needed in-game training to learn their roles, while others quickly learned by participating in online communities and watching games. The study showed that becoming a part of the D&D community involves both playing at the table and engaging with the wider online D&D world.

Citation: Giordano, M. J. (2022). Legitimate Peripheral Participation by Novices in a Dungeons and Dragons Community.  Simulation & Gaming ,  53 (5), 446-469.

5. Police Work A researcher may ride along with police officers to observe their day-to-day activities, decision-making processes , and their interactions with the community.

6. Homeless Community A researcher might spend time incognito in homeless communities to observe first-hand the struggles, social norms, coping mechanisms, and the impact of local policies on these communities.

7. Religious Festivals A researcher participates in religious festivals or public ceremonies to understand the associated cultural symbols, rituals, conduct, and beliefs.

8. Healthcare Settings A researcher could embed themselves in a hospital or clinic to observe interactions between healthcare providers and patients, to understand patient-care protocols, or assess workflow efficiency.

Sample Study: Participant observation in obesity research with children

Brief Explanation: This participant observation study was about researching obesity in children by observing them in their everyday activities. The researchers wanted to understand how children think about food and their bodies. They found that talking to children through regular interviews might limit their responses. Instead, by watching children in their natural environments, the researchers gained better insights into how children view their bodies and health. This approach allowed them to see beyond the typical spaces where research is done and understand children’s experiences more deeply.

Citation: Gunson, J. S., Warin, M., Zivkovic, T., & Moore, V. (2016). Participant observation in obesity research with children: Striated and smooth spaces.  Children’s Geographies ,  14 (1), 20-34.

9. Subculture Observation A researcher might immerse themselves in a particular subculture, such as biker clubs, punk or goth communities, or online fandoms, to observe their practices, codes, relationship dynamics, and shared identities.

10. Sporting Events A researcher could join a soccer league, a boxing gym, or an extreme sports club to examine the dynamics, customs, procedures, and participant motivation within these organizations.

11. Ethnobotany Study A researcher could join a community in a remote location to study their use of plants for medicinal, nutritional, and other purposes, their knowledge transfer methodologies, and associated cultural practices.

12. Educational Settings A researcher might participate as a teacher or a student in a classroom to understand teaching methods, student behavior, the impact of classroom environments on learning, or the effectiveness of certain educational policies.

Sample Study: The place of humor in the classroom

Brief Explanation: This study looked at humor in classrooms, specifically how much and what kind of humor teachers and students use. The study explored both positive and negative effects of humor, as inappropriate humor can be bad. The researchers were participant observes in 105 Greek primary school classrooms and found that teachers used humor about twice per teaching hour on average.

Citation: Chaniotakis, N., & Papazoglou, M. (2019). The place of humor in the classroom.  Research on young children’s humor: Theoretical and practical implications for early childhood education , 127-144.

13. Consumer Behavior A researcher might pose as a shopper in a retail store to observe and understand consumer behavior, shopping habits, influences on purchasing decisions, effectiveness of product placements, and impacts of store environments on consumer choices.

14. Campaign Observation A researcher may join a political or social campaign to observe the strategies utilized, the internal structures and conduct, and the dynamics of public engagement.

15. Prison Settings A researcher might work as a guard or administrator in a prison setting to study the attitudes, behaviors, and interactions of inmates and prison staff.

Pros and Cons of Participant Observation

• Generation of rich and detailed data: Participant observation allows the researcher to collect data that is in-depth and rich in detail due to the firsthand experience (Balsiger & Lambelet, 2014; Gunn & Logstrup, 2014). The researcher can record observations, feelings, and interpretations, capturing the complexity of human behavior and providing a context for understanding it.
• The naturalistic and real-world context: In participant observation, data is collected in the natural environment of the subject, thus providing a more realistic picture of what is being studied. Observations are less artificial than controlled settings, such as in laboratory experiments (Spradley, 2016; Musante & DeWalt, 2010).
• Flexibility: The researcher has the ability to adjust the research focus as the study progresses. If during the course of observation, the researcher identifies new aspects of the research question or encounters new paths of enquiry, there is the possibility to explore these (Spradley, 2016).
• Insider perspective: By participating actively in the group or community being observed, the researcher acquires an internal perspective, thus gaining access to the members’ perceptions, values, and views which might not surface through other research methods (Kawulich, 2005).
• Risk of subjectivity: Personal biases and the involvement of the researcher in the group being studied can lead to the observed behavior being interpreted subjectively (Jorgensen, 2020). The researcher’s presence might alter the research environment and the behavior of those being observed, which could further influence the data’s validity.
• Time and resource intensity: The participant observation method often requires the researcher to spend a large amount of time in the field. It may also necessitate the learning of a new language or culture, or it can involve travel and accommodation expenses, if the observation is taking place in a different region (Lambelet, 2014; Jorgensen, 2020).
• Difficulties in replication: Since the observations are not only determined by the observed phenomena and participants, but also the unique interpretation of the observer, replication of studies can be very difficult (Jorgensen, 2020).
• Ethical considerations: There can be ethical dilemmas, such as concerns about privacy and informed consent. In participant observation, the line between observing and participating can sometimes blur, potentially leading to ethical dilemmas if subjects do not know they are part of a study (Musante & DeWalt, 2010).
• Problem of data overload: Participant observations can generate a significant amount of data, including personal observations, conversations, interviews, and documents, presenting a challenge when it comes to data management, coding, and analysis (Spradley, 2016). As a result, effectively synthesizing all the available information can pose a significant complication.

Participant Observation vs Ethnography

Participant observation generally occurs in the social sciences during qualitative field research . The participant enters the setting, participates and observes, then leaves.

However, an extended version of participant observation, where the participant remains immersed in the setting for a sustained period of time, is called ethnography (Spradley, 2016).

While the two methods overlap, there are some key differences, explored below:

• Participant Observation: This approach involves a researcher immersing themselves in a social setting and observing behaviors, interactions, events, and activities (Jorgensen, 2020; Kawulich, 2005). The researcher participates in the activities to a certain extent to better understand the group or culture while also maintaining a level of detachment, often entering and leaving settings.
• Ethnography: This is a broader research method that often includes participant observation, but goes further, where the researcher becomes a member of the group for a sustained period of time. This provides an in-depth ‘thick description’ of everyday life and practices. The goal of ethnography is to understand the social world in the same way as the people being studied. It typically involves a variety of data collection methods such as interviews, surveys, and document analysis, in addition to participant observation.

Overall, while participant observation focuses on observation and participation in certain activities, ethnography seeks to provide a broader cultural context and deep understanding of the socio-cultural phenomena at play.

Participant observation is a useful tool for qualitative research, often generating richer insights than quantitative research or even other qualitative methods like interviewing alone. It can be done in a range of settings, including workplace, school, religious, cultural, and even prison settings! Overall, it’s useful for helping researchers to dig beneath the surface, but does have drawbacks such as lack of generalizability and researcher subjectivity.

Balsiger, P., & Lambelet, A. (2014). Participant observation: how participant observation changes our view on social movements.  Methodological practices in social movement research , 144-172.

Chaniotakis, N., & Papazoglou, M. (2019). The place of humor in the classroom.  Research on young children’s humor: Theoretical and practical implications for early childhood education , 127-144.

Giordano, M. J. (2022). Legitimate Peripheral Participation by Novices in a Dungeons and Dragons Community.  Simulation & Gaming ,  53 (5), 446-469.

Gunn, W., & Logstrup, L. B. (2014). Participant observation, anthropology methodology and design anthropology research inquiry.  Arts and Humanities in Higher Education ,  13 (4), 428-442.

Gunson, J. S., Warin, M., Zivkovic, T., & Moore, V. (2016). Participant observation in obesity research with children: Striated and smooth spaces.  Children’s Geographies ,  14 (1), 20-34.

Jorgensen, D. L. (2020).  Principles, approaches and issues in participant observation . Routledge.

Kawulich, B. B. (2005, May). Participant observation as a data collection method. In  Forum qualitative sozialforschung/forum: Qualitative social research  (Vol. 6, No. 2).

Kumar, S., & Wallace, C. (2016, May). Among the agilists: participant observation in a rapidly evolving workplace. In  Proceedings of the 9th International Workshop on Cooperative and Human Aspects of Software Engineering  (pp. 52-55).

Musante, K., & DeWalt, B. R. (2010).  Participant observation: A guide for fieldworkers . Rowman Altamira.

Spradley, J. P. (2016).  Participant observation . Waveland Press.

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Research Methodologies Guide

• Action Research
• Bibliometrics
• Case Studies
• Content Analysis
• Digital Scholarship This link opens in a new window
• Documentary
• Ethnography
• Focus Groups
• Grounded Theory
• Life Histories/Autobiographies
• Longitudinal

Participant Observation

• Qualitative Research (General)
• Quasi-Experimental Design
• Usability Studies

Participant Observation is 

"A method of research in anthropology which involves extended immersion in a culture and participation in its day-to-day activities" (Calhoun, 2002).

This type of research methodology is used in circumstances where an individual wants to observe a group to which they do not belong without altering the behavior of the group because of their involvement. Because of this, before observations can be noted as being "natural," the observer must immerse themselves in the culture or group they are observing. The extent to which the observers' participation affects their results has been debated over time. 

For more information on participant observation, review the resources below:

Where to Start

Below are listed a few tools and online guides that can help you start your Participant Observation research. These include free online resources and resources available only through ISU Library.

• Participation Observation Field Guide [pdf] From Duke University, a thorough overview of participant observation.
• Participant Observation by Danny L. Jorgensen Call Number: H62 .J625 1989 While providing an introduction to basic principles and strategies, this volume also explores the philosophy and methodology underlying the actual practice of participant observation. Taking a thoroughly practical approach to the methods of participant observation, Jorgensen illustrates these methods with both classic and current research studies.

Online Resources

• Participant Observation definition From the Social Research Glossary, A thorough explanation, with links to the definitions of terms used and to other people's writings on the subject.
• Participant Observation and Field Notes A guide to participant observation from the Ethnographic Action Research training handbook.
• How to... Use Ethnographic Methods and Participant Observation From Emerald, a journal publisher, in their Research Zone for practicing authors.
• Ethical Challenges in Participant Observation: A Reflection on Ethnographic Fieldwork An article by Jun Li from The Qualitative Report.
• Participant observation--Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Wikipedia can be a useful place to start your research- check the citations at the bottom of the article for more information.
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• Next: Qualitative Research (General) >>
• Last Updated: Aug 12, 2024 4:07 PM
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Participant Observation 101: Definition, Types, Uses, Examples

Kate Williams

Last Updated: 13 February 2024

12 min read

Table Of Contents

What is participant observation?

• The 6 types of participant observation

Where is participant observation used?

5 top participant observation examples.

If you’re planning to use participant observation in research, or just want to brush up on the basics, you’ve come to the right place.

Here’s what we’ll cover in this blog:

• Participant observation: definition
• 6 types of participant observation
• 5 participant observation examples

“But then you must’ve some idea who’s behind it all.”

This line is from ‘Harry Potter: The Chamber of Secrets’. In short, Harry and Ron turn into Goyle and Crabbe (thanks to Hermione’s Polyjuice potion) to see Draco and find out if he’s the heir of Salazar Slytherin. Spoiler if you haven’t read the book: he wasn’t.

But why on earth are we discussing Harry Potter and this scene? Well, because it is a great fictional example of the participant observation method .

Participant observation is a research method where the researcher observes a target audience or group and their day-to-day activities.

The goal of the participant observation method is to study as wide a range of behaviors as possible in a natural, organic setting. As a result, participant observation studies play a vital role in fields that study human behavior – including sociology, psychology, cultural anthropology, and ethnography.

In business, participant observation is defined as qualitative research , and it is helpful for building and marketing better products. You can use it in combination with survey tools like SurveySparrow to collect and visualize the results of your research in real-time.

You can access 1000+ templates and survey tools that will scale up your research by signing up below. Bonus: you will also get complete access to all of our features for 14 days.

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What are the 6 types of participant observation?

#1. passive participant observation.

In the passive participant observation method, the researchers observe and record participant behavior without actively involving themselves in the situation. They don’t interact or converse with the participants, and the observation is often done without the participants’ knowledge.

Example : Observing people in public places, like parks, cafés, malls, transport hubs, and even social media. Stuff taken directly out of a detective’s book, won’t you agree?

• Pros: It brings rich data without being intrusive or disturbing the participant’s normal routine.
• Cons : It can potentially violate a person’s privacy because they are not able to give informed consent.

#2. Active participant observation

In the active form of participant observation, the researchers speak with the participants and immerse themselves in their lives. With this, the researcher finds information about their activities, habits, interests, and even goals. Some researchers limit their participation to interviewing the subjects, while others immerse themselves in experiencing the life of their target group.

Example : Research that goes on for a long period – like an anthropologist living in an indigenous community to study a set of their customs and culture.

• Pros : The researcher can get access to rare nuggets of information from living as part of the target group.
• Cons: Reactivity, or change of behavior by the participants because they know they are under observation, can affect the findings.

#3. Covert-active participant observation

Covert participant observation is when the researcher goes undercover. In other words, the researchers assume the identity of their target group. They conceal their true identity for the duration of the study, and the target group is unaware that they are being studied. In the active form of this participant observation method, the researchers experience all practices as experienced by everyone in the group.

Example : This 2009 study of football hooliganism was based on covert active research on Blackpool FC supporters during the 90s.

• Pros : Gaining access to closed groups is easier as the researcher doesn’t need to get permission.
• Cons: The researcher is under constant pressure to maintain their alternate identity and record data at the same time.

#4. Covert-passive participant observation

In the passive form of covert research, the investigator does not attempt to deceive or mislead participants. Traditionally, the most common example of this type of covert research has involved observation of activity in public places such as shopping malls, parks, restaurants, etc., or virtual communities and forums.

Example: A researcher observes and monitors online interactions of other members in a subreddit, but chooses not to contribute or provide a public explanation of their research.

• Pros : This method is helpful for observation in places which people inhabit for short periods, and where social interactions are minimal.
• Cons: Due to the time constraints, this method may offer only limited information on certain topics.

#5. Overt-active participant observation

In the overt observation type, the researcher becomes a full member of their target group…but the group knows they are doing research. The active form of overt observation lets the researcher take part in the group’s daily activities.

Example: Many ethnographic studies, like this study of an elite high school in Concord, New Hampshire , use overt-active observation.

• Pros : This is the most ethical type of observation because participants can give their informed consent, and deception isn’t necessary.
• Cons: The researcher can still unwittingly influence what’s happening in the group.

#6. Overt-passive participant observation

Here, the target group knows about the researcher. However, the researcher plays no part in their activities. He’s just a silent observer, observing the practices followed by all participants. So, no participant feels his presence.

Example: When a researcher joins employees for meetings but doesn’t interfere in any way.

• Pros : This method can be combined with 1:1 interviews and surveys to get more insight on the perspectives of different people involved.
• Cons: Even when the researcher is not actively interacting, the subjects might still alter their behavior because they know a person is observing them.

The use of participant observation as a qualitative research method lies in multiple sectors and industries. However, there are 4 main areas that use participation observation. Let’s talk about them:

#1. Market research

Organizations of all shapes and sizes use participant observation for conducting market research. They share a targeted market research survey with people, and the survey organizers analyze the responses to find relevant patterns. Read how you can create the perfect market research survey that gets the job done.

In fact, the organizer doesn’t directly involve himself in the audience’s shoes. They observe and record subject behaviors through their responses to the survey. Yes, you guessed it right! Passive participation observation is how things are done here.

#2. Sociological research

Almost all the discussed participant observation methods (types) are used extensively in sociological research. Here, human behaviors and cultures are studied based on their social interactions. The researchers use this observation method for participating in activities and performing critical analysis based on their communication with them.

Sociological research using participant observation can be short or even long-term research, where there’s free will to find relevant patterns over an extended period.

#3. Campaigns & events

“I don’t know which way the result is gonna swing. Oh god, I’m so nervous!”

Are you this guy before the results of a campaign are announced?

Well, come on… don’t get all tensed up. Know your audience beforehand using participant observation, and you’ll have a fair idea of which way the tide is going. Political campaigns, organizational events, college elections. You name it. This qualitative research method is the way to do it.

#4. Mental health

The Covid-19 pandemic was a big wake-up call that mental health is just as important as physical. There were lots of cases of employee dissatisfaction leading to deteriorated mental well-being. Organizations, globally, have done a fantastic job of raising mental health awareness, and participant observation played (and still plays) a significant role in that.

There were many cases of HR teams engaging with employees and participating in activities to understand their satisfaction levels. Similarly, interactions with people suffering from mental health issues helped find the root cause. Both of these participant observation methods focused on direct interactions with the target group and stepping into their shoes to find the problem areas. It worked!

Top published participant observation examples are the best way to recognize the importance of this research method even more. So with no further ado, time to let the cat out of the bag.

#1. The ethnography of an elite high school

Most of the ethnographic work we see is around minority communities and the poor. However, this qualitative research example mentioned above gained immense attention as it focused on finding a scientific description of students’ culture and customs from an elite high school.

The researcher, Shamus Khan, used the open and active participant observation method to get a job at the school, move into an apartment on the campus, and observe the daily routines of students. While this observation went on, the researcher took part in most activities of the target group and interviewed them on his questions relating to the research.

Once he had got the answers, he found relevant patterns that led to many revelations about the cultures followed and habits developed in an elite school. All of those findings are here in this book .

#2. Observing social activism & migrants

One of the best places for participant observation usage is to study what’s causing social activism to rise and a specific group of people to migrate.

In most cases, like in this case , too, they performed the observation discreetly, where the researcher stayed covert but kept interacting with all participants. As a result, the what, why, how, and when are answered well this way.

#3. Top athlete’s behavior

People always look upon top athletes as ideals, and role models to follow. For instance, they wish to know their routine, diet, and training. More research is always ongoing on that front, and most of them use participant observation for it.

So a researcher conducts covert observation on them to learn about their behavior and entire routine. The participating observer becomes involved with an athlete as a student interested in the sport. This way, he doesn’t have to participate in the game. Hence they can observe and ask athletes about their curiosities (questions).

The other way is when athletes know you’re the observer, and they’re willing to give answers. You can take part with them actively in a ‘day in the life of…’ manner and fire away your questions to understand what makes them a top player.

Then, there are ‘investigations’ being conducted on players to find how they are in real life, away from the sport. For this, the observer stays covert, spending time spotting differences in behavior both on and off the pitch. To achieve that, the observer should gain the athlete’s group trust to get more accurate information, and that takes time.

#4. Studying regional challenges

Lora-Wainwright studied the challenge of the severe population in rural China from 2009 until 2013 using participant observation. The main agenda of her research was to find how people there coped with it, knowing its detrimental effect on their health.

For this, she observed three villages that were coping with large-scale industrial pollution. Notably, Lora focused on finding how people responded after knowing the risk of cancer from this pollution, how they organized themselves to protest, and how they coped with it every day, as polluted water was hampering people’s health in these villages.

Moreover, her focus was also on the Chinese government’s inability to curb this pollution and its industrialization agenda. She has written a book about it, currently under revision, but this podcast summarizes all her findings. Check it out.

#5. Understanding an industry

Conducting market research is a great way to do it, and we’ve already talked about how participant observation is used there. But it’s done in a fun way, too!

For instance, Helen Sampson boarded her first cargo ship as she wanted to understand a great deal about how the shipping industry worked. She had her doubts about the journey, but the seafarers welcomed her well. They all knew she was here for research. Yet, they helped her, took part in her interviews, and gave her quality insights into the industry and the cargo ship.

It was one helluva ride for her, and this research won Thinking Allowed’s first ethnography award in 2014. You’ll find the summary of this research at the end of the show.

Wrapping Up

Any product, service, or offering becomes a resounding success when it clicks with its intended market. Otherwise, it loses its shine and ends on a low. For that to not happen, market research is critical, and even more crucial is deciding how the research will be conducted.

Here, we’ve given a strong case for participant observation. And although there are other qualitative methods, too, this one gets our support.

At SurveySparrow, we’ve helped conduct many market research surveys in multiple sectors that collected crucial data. We would love to help you with it too. Get in touch with us and let us know your requirements, and we’ll contact you ASAP.

Or, you can go ahead and try it out first. It’s free!

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How to... Use ethnographic methods & participant observation

Find out how to use ethnographic research methods and participant observation in our detailed guide.

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What are ethnographic methods, organisational ethnography, what is participant observation , analysing, theorising and writing up.

Ethnographic methods are a research approach where you look at people in their cultural setting, with the goal of producing a narrative account of that particular culture, against a theoretical backdrop. As part of this you will look at:

• Deeds done as well as words used
• How they interact with one another, and with their social and cultural environment
• What is  not  said as much as what is said
• Language, and symbols, rituals and shared meanings that populate their world

Ethnography is a study of culture, therefore, organisational ethnography looks at the culture of organisations.

Organisational culture exists within the minds of the people who make up that organisation, while organisational ethnography is concerned with settings within which social relations take place between actors who are set on particular goals.

This culture evolves over time, contains dominant cultures and subcultures, and is subject to its own rules, rites, myths and symbols.

History of ethnographic methods

Ethnography has its origins in social anthropology, and in particular, the work of Malinowski whose seminal text  Argonauts of the Western Pacific  describes his experience of living for a long time with South Pacific islanders, and counsels the anthropologist to spend at least a year in the field, to learn the language, and to live as one of the population which he or she studies.

It was taken over by sociology in the 1930s when the Chicago school studied "deviant subcultures" in urban America in the great depression.

Early ethnographers were criticized for their detached stance, particularly by feminist anthropologists, but recent adaptations of the method use it in action research, where the study population itself becomes involved in the request for information and meaning.

Research parameters

Ethnographic methods are qualitative, inductive, exploratory and longitudinal. They achieve a thick, rich description over a relatively small area.

As the researcher, it is best if you conduct your data gathering on an iterative basis, with you taking on a "reflexive" role – in other words observing, reflecting, building up a theory and then going back into the field and testing it.

This process of testing is essential, because of the inevitable element of subjectivity in a research method where you, the researcher, is the instrument.

There are a number of practical considerations with ethnographic methods, such as:

• Time.  Studies are time-consuming to complete. If you are looking at making ethnography one of your approaches for a dissertation, will you have sufficient time before the completion date? If part of a major research project, will the project bear the costs?
• Place.  You need to make sure that you can get the cooperation of the organisation you wish to observe and decide whether you want to look at the whole organisation, one part of it or a cross-section.

Data collection methods and triangulation

Most ethnographic research makes considerable use of participant observation, usually triangulated with interviews and/or ordinary "informal" conversations.

Triangulation is particularly important as one method on its own is not usually reliable.

You can also gain a lot of information from other sources, such as:

• Written documents , e.g. e-mails, policy documents, meeting minutes, organisation charts, reports, procedural manuals, "official" corporate material such as an intranet, brochures, press releases, advertising, web pages, annual report.
• Corporate events  like the annual staff conference and Christmas party, etc.
• Branding  – logo and how it is applied, slogan, etc. Branding is a particularly strong use of symbolism.
• Site location , built environment, design, etc.

Another method used is that of the diary, which participants are required to complete (you will also be completing a diary as part of your participant observation.

This may either have set categories as in structured observation, or the participant may be required to keep a record of their experiences (for example, their reactions to a training course) or of what they do.

Participant observation is one of the main ethnographic data collection methods.

The essence of participant observation is that you, as the researcher, observe the subject of research, either by participating directly in the action, as a member of the study population, or as a "pure" observer, in which case you do not participate in the action but are still present on the scene, for example observing workers in a manufacturing plant or discussants in the board room.

In either case, you observe, note, record, describe, analyse, and interpret people and their interactions, and related events, with the objective of obtaining a systematic account of behaviour and idea systems of a given community, organisation or institution.

Why use participant observation?

Like other ethnographic methods, participant observation is very much based on the classic methods used in early anthropology, by Malinowski and others as they studied particular populations, often for years at a time, taking detailed notes.

Participant observation is usually inductive, and carried out as part of an exploratory research phase, with the view of forming hypotheses from the data. It is often connected with the  grounded theory  method, according to which researchers revisit the research territory with deeper and deeper knowledge.

The strength of participant observation is its ability to describe depth (thick description) and to help understand human behaviour.

Researcher roles

There is a continuum in observation techniques between the covert and the overt observer, and the observer who participates completely in the activity and the one who is purely a "fly on the wall".

There are problems with all these approaches, but the ideal is to ensure that the maximum amount of information is gained whilst at the same time retaining the maximum distance in order to ensure researcher objectivity.

Which role is adopted would depend on the subject being researched, for example:

• Complete participant.  There are obvious ethical considerations of being part of a group and not revealing your role as a researcher who will subsequently write up the research study, but in some circumstances revealing your role might prejudice the research, particularly if the subject concerns something delicate such as the consumption of alcohol or drugs.
• Complete observer.  This might be appropriate to a situation where the subject is relatively large-scale, for example observing people in a shopping mall or in a supermarket, or where the revelation of the role might destroy the dynamics of small group behaviour, as for example watching the behaviour of groups of shoppers.
• Observer as participant.  The disadvantage here is that although you participate in some way in the activity, you lose the emotional involvement, but the advantage is that you can concentrate on your role as a researcher. It might be used if you were, for example, observing people on a training course, or users of electronic courseware, where it was very important to understand the reactions and mental processes of the participants rather than what they do.
• Participant as observer.  The advantage of participating is that you become fully part of the group, and you can experience directly what your subjects are experiencing. It is particularly useful when for example you need to understand work practices or job roles.

There are other possible roles for the observer:

• As  facilitator  and  change agent , when you become involved not merely as a participant but as someone who seeks to help subjects change some aspect of their world, for example in action research.
• As a  narrator , describing what you have witnessed from a position of authority.

Structured observation

Structured observation differs from participant observation in that it is more detached, more systematic, and what is observed often has a more mechanical quality. It is also a quantitative as opposed to a qualitative technique, concerned with quantifying behaviour as opposed to obtaining a rich description.

Advantages and disadvantages

Participant observation is not without its detractors and is seen to have a number of advantages and disadvantages:

• It can provide very rich data and can be particularly good at revealing facets of human behaviour.
• It does not rely on the words of the actors themselves, so is not dependent on people's ability to verbalize, and provides a source other than their own testimony.
• Issues of time and researcher objectivity can be met by careful use of sampling, whereby observation is confined to particular locations and times.
• All research techniques have inbuilt problems of bias: for example, the interviewer effect, and the difficulty of formulating careful survey questions.

Disadvantages

• Because the researcher is the instrument, there may be difficulty in maintaining the necessary objectivity.
• Good participant observation takes up a lot of time.
• It requires intimacy and an invasion of privacy which may be disruptive both to the research process and also to the organisation itself. On the other hand, concealing one's identity is ethically questionable as it involves a deception.
• Observer bias: the observer's own views and personal beliefs may impinge upon observations.

However, the best way of using participant observation in a useful and responsible way is to triangulate it with other approaches.

Applications to management research

Participant observation is based on the social sciences, particularly social anthropology and on the premise that you go and study a different, and often remote culture.

The appeal to management research is that it can study the culture of an organisation in depth. However, in many cases it is simply not practical to immerse oneself for months at a time: the cost would be too great, the organisation may not be willing, and one cannot actually live with the workers. For this reason,  time sampling  is often adopted, where the times at which observation takes place are carefully selected.

Use in market research

Participant observation is particularly useful in market research. It is a natural technique as both are concerned with human behaviour. It can be a good method when:

• The subject under study is easily observable and occurs in public
• It concerns a social process or mass activity, such as the disposal of household waste
• The processes are subconscious, for example in a study of in-store music
• It would not be desirable or easy for consumers to interact with the researcher, for example with very young children.

Data collection

Observations should be recorded as far as is possible on the day of the fieldwork, in diary form, and should comprise the following:

• Time of day
• Actors present
• Sequence of events, and any interruptions.
• Secondary observations  in the form of any statements by others about what you observed.
• Experiential data  as relating to your own state of mind, emotions and any reflections.
• Circumstantial and background data  about the organisation, key roles etc.

Analysis of unstructured data

What distinguishes the analysis of ethnographically generated data is that the research process is inductive and iterative.

Unlike the neatly linear trajectory of some other research, when you construct an instrument to prove a theory and do not analyse until you have collected all the data, in ethnographic research data collection and analysis may be simultaneous, while theories are formed on the basis of some data and then tested and refined against further data. This process is known as  analytic induction .

When you begin to collect data, you will find very soon that you get a lot. This is the time to begin an initial analysis. As you start the coding process, begin to look for groupings, based on frequency and patterns of and in the data. As you refine your  coding structure , check your assumptions carefully. Eventually, you will reach a point where you are relatively confident of your coding structure and you can begin to use it as a way of organising your data.

There are a number of  software packages  –  NVivo, QSR NUD.IST  and  The Ethnograph  for example – that can help here, or you may prefer to use an ordinary office package such as Word or Excel. Some of the software packages also offer modelling facilities.

Whatever method you use, at this stage patterns will begin to emerge from which you will be able to build theory.

Analysis of structured data

The analysis of structured observation data is different in that the coding schedule is established before the start of data collection. In this case you either:

• establish your own headings, which should be consistent with your research questions
• follow an existing "off the shelf" coding schedule
• use a combination of these approaches, modifying an existing schedule and perhaps putting in some of your own headings.

The fact that data are situation specific and not easy to replicate, together with the possibility of observer bias, are threats to validity with unstructured observation.

These threats can be dealt with by:

• Checking the observations, and interpretations of them, with participants, as a form of triangulation.
• Checking the coding structure, which can be done by the researcher checking against emerging theory, and other researchers coding the data to see if they come up with similar coding structures.
• "Perspicacity" – the ability to abstract from the data general principles that can throw light on other similar situations.

Theory building

The literature review is commonly done at the beginning of the research process. But with ethnographic research, it often follows (at least some) data collection and analysis – because it is connected with theory building.

In ethnographic research, the researcher is often compared with a journalist researching a story and looking for promising lines of enquiry. As the data are being collected and patterns start to emerge, so may interesting lines of enquiry on which theories can be built.

The objective of the theory is not to predict, but to explain, to look for contextual structures and to provide a context for events, conversations and descriptions. You are providing an explanatory framework for the phenomena which you have been observing.

As indicated above, once you have formulated a theory you need to check it against the data, and check the data against itself – how valid is it?

The theory also needs to be situated in the relevant literature, and have its own theoretical context.

For a dissertation , you should follow the guidelines of your own university and check out other dissertations which have used similar research techniques.

A traditional approach, however, is introduction, literature review, philosophical approach and methodology, findings, analysis, discussion and conclusion.

For a journal article , you are best advised to look carefully at other examples of articles written for scholarly journals, particularly ones in which you are thinking of publishing.

Ethnographic research allows us to regard and represent the actors as creators as well as executants of their own meanings. The very way in which they tell us about what they do tells the researcher a great deal about what is meaningful for and in the research. It adds richness and texture to the experience of conducting research.

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Qualitative research method-interviewing and observation

Shazia jamshed.

Department of Pharmacy Practice, Kulliyyah of Pharmacy, International Islamic University Malaysia, Kuantan Campus, Pahang, Malaysia

Buckley and Chiang define research methodology as “a strategy or architectural design by which the researcher maps out an approach to problem-finding or problem-solving.”[ 1 ] According to Crotty, research methodology is a comprehensive strategy ‘that silhouettes our choice and use of specific methods relating them to the anticipated outcomes,[ 2 ] but the choice of research methodology is based upon the type and features of the research problem.[ 3 ] According to Johnson et al . mixed method research is “a class of research where the researcher mixes or combines quantitative and qualitative research techniques, methods, approaches, theories and or language into a single study.[ 4 ] In order to have diverse opinions and views, qualitative findings need to be supplemented with quantitative results.[ 5 ] Therefore, these research methodologies are considered to be complementary to each other rather than incompatible to each other.[ 6 ]

Qualitative research methodology is considered to be suitable when the researcher or the investigator either investigates new field of study or intends to ascertain and theorize prominent issues.[ 6 , 7 ] There are many qualitative methods which are developed to have an in depth and extensive understanding of the issues by means of their textual interpretation and the most common types are interviewing and observation.[ 7 ]

Interviewing

This is the most common format of data collection in qualitative research. According to Oakley, qualitative interview is a type of framework in which the practices and standards be not only recorded, but also achieved, challenged and as well as reinforced.[ 8 ] As no research interview lacks structure[ 9 ] most of the qualitative research interviews are either semi-structured, lightly structured or in-depth.[ 9 ] Unstructured interviews are generally suggested in conducting long-term field work and allow respondents to let them express in their own ways and pace, with minimal hold on respondents’ responses.[ 10 ]

Pioneers of ethnography developed the use of unstructured interviews with local key informants that is., by collecting the data through observation and record field notes as well as to involve themselves with study participants. To be precise, unstructured interview resembles a conversation more than an interview and is always thought to be a “controlled conversation,” which is skewed towards the interests of the interviewer.[ 11 ] Non-directive interviews, form of unstructured interviews are aimed to gather in-depth information and usually do not have pre-planned set of questions.[ 11 ] Another type of the unstructured interview is the focused interview in which the interviewer is well aware of the respondent and in times of deviating away from the main issue the interviewer generally refocuses the respondent towards key subject.[ 11 ] Another type of the unstructured interview is an informal, conversational interview, based on unplanned set of questions that are generated instantaneously during the interview.[ 11 ]

In contrast, semi-structured interviews are those in-depth interviews where the respondents have to answer preset open-ended questions and thus are widely employed by different healthcare professionals in their research. Semi-structured, in-depth interviews are utilized extensively as interviewing format possibly with an individual or sometimes even with a group.[ 6 ] These types of interviews are conducted once only, with an individual or with a group and generally cover the duration of 30 min to more than an hour.[ 12 ] Semi-structured interviews are based on semi-structured interview guide, which is a schematic presentation of questions or topics and need to be explored by the interviewer.[ 12 ] To achieve optimum use of interview time, interview guides serve the useful purpose of exploring many respondents more systematically and comprehensively as well as to keep the interview focused on the desired line of action.[ 12 ] The questions in the interview guide comprise of the core question and many associated questions related to the central question, which in turn, improve further through pilot testing of the interview guide.[ 7 ] In order to have the interview data captured more effectively, recording of the interviews is considered an appropriate choice but sometimes a matter of controversy among the researcher and the respondent. Hand written notes during the interview are relatively unreliable, and the researcher might miss some key points. The recording of the interview makes it easier for the researcher to focus on the interview content and the verbal prompts and thus enables the transcriptionist to generate “verbatim transcript” of the interview.

Similarly, in focus groups, invited groups of people are interviewed in a discussion setting in the presence of the session moderator and generally these discussions last for 90 min.[ 7 ] Like every research technique having its own merits and demerits, group discussions have some intrinsic worth of expressing the opinions openly by the participants. On the contrary in these types of discussion settings, limited issues can be focused, and this may lead to the generation of fewer initiatives and suggestions about research topic.

Observation

Observation is a type of qualitative research method which not only included participant's observation, but also covered ethnography and research work in the field. In the observational research design, multiple study sites are involved. Observational data can be integrated as auxiliary or confirmatory research.[ 11 ]

Research can be visualized and perceived as painstaking methodical efforts to examine, investigate as well as restructure the realities, theories and applications. Research methods reflect the approach to tackling the research problem. Depending upon the need, research method could be either an amalgam of both qualitative and quantitative or qualitative or quantitative independently. By adopting qualitative methodology, a prospective researcher is going to fine-tune the pre-conceived notions as well as extrapolate the thought process, analyzing and estimating the issues from an in-depth perspective. This could be carried out by one-to-one interviews or as issue-directed discussions. Observational methods are, sometimes, supplemental means for corroborating research findings.

Participant Observation in Social Research

Table of Contents

Last Updated on October 12, 2022 by

Participant Observation is where the researcher joins in with the group being studied and observes their behaviour. This post covers the theoretical, practical and ethical strengths and limitations of using overt and covert participant observation in social research.

It has been written primarily for students studying the research methods aspect of A-level sociology.

Participant observation is closely related to the ethnographic method (or ‘ethnography’), which consists of an in-depth study of the way of life of a group of people.

Ethnography is traditionally associated with anthropology , wherein the anthropologist visits a (usually) foreign land, gains access to a group (for example a tribe or village), and spends several years living with them with the aim of uncovering their culture. The ethnographic method involves watching what participants do, listening to them, engaging in probing conversations, and joining them in day to day tasks as necessary; it also involves investigating any cultural artefacts such as art work and any written work if it exists, as well as analysing what religious rituals and popular stories can tell us about the culture. Ethnographic research has traditionally involved taking copious field notes, and the resulting ‘monographs’ which are produced can take several months, if not a year or more to write up.

To cut a long winded definition short, ethnography is basically the same as participant observation, but includes the writing up of a detailed account of one’s findings:

Participant Observation and the use of other methods

Overt and covert observation.

An important distinction in Participation/ Ethnography is between covert and over observation.

These both have their strengths and limitations – overt research is obviously more ethical because of the lack of deception, and it allows the researcher to ask probing questions and use other research methods. Covert research may be the only way to gain access to deviant groups, it may enable you to gain fuller ‘immersion’ into the host culture and avoids the ‘Hawthorne Effect’. However, ethically it involves deception and can be very stressful for the researcher.

The Strengths of Participant Observation

Theoretical advantages.

You can observe what people do, not what they say they do – In contrast to most other methods, participant observation allows the researcher to see what people do rather than what people say they do.

Participant Observation takes place in natural settings – this should mean respondents act more naturally than in a laboratory, or during a more formal interview. This should mean the Hawthorne effect will be less, especially with covert research. You also get more of a feel for respondents’ actions in context, which might otherwise seem out of place if in an artificial research environment.

Flexibility and generating new ideas – when completing questionnaires researchers begin with pre-set questions. Even before starting to collect the data, therefore, the researchers have decided what’s important. The problem with this is what if the questions the researcher thinks are important are not the same as the ones the subject thinks are important. By contrast, participant observation is much more flexible. It allows the researcher to enter the situation with an open mind and as new situations are encountered they can be followed up.

Practical Advantages

Ethical advantages, the limitations of participant observation, theoretical disadvantages.

One theoretical disadvantage is the low degree of reliability. It would be almost impossible for another researcher to repeat given that a participant observation study relies on the personal skills and characteristics of the lone researcher.

A further threat to validity is the Hawthorne Effect, where people act differently because they know they are being observed, although participant observers would counter this by saying that people can’t keep up an act over long time periods: they will eventually relax and be themselves.

Practical Disadvantages

Participant Observation also requires observational and interpersonal skills that not everyone possesses – you have to be able to get on with people and understand when to take a back seat and when to probe for information.

Ethical Disadvantages

Legality can also be an issue in covert research where researchers working with deviant groups may have to do illegal acts to maintain their cover.

Some advantages of Overt compared to Covert Observation

2. You can combine it with other methods

5. It is easier to do follow up studies.

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