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Representation in Literature: Why It’s Important & How To Handle It

October 10, 2018 by ANGELA ACKERMAN

Happy to welcome Deborah Dixon , a passionate author, editor, and racial justice activist to talk a bit on Representation in Literature, a topic of importance and something I think many of us want to understand better so we can encourage the right sort of discussions and help bring about change. Please read on!

The issue of representation has become an important one in literature and throughout the entertainment industry. As an author and publisher of color, I am often asked to offer insight on how best to include characters of diverse backgrounds. Specifically, this means characters from minority or underrepresented groups, such as ethnic minorities, LGBTQIA+ persons, religious minorities, those with disabilities, and to some extent, socioeconomic minorities. In this article, I will use the term “minority” to refer to members of all of these groups.

First, my credentials: I am Jamaican, neurodivergent, and simultaneously a citizen of and immigrant to the United States, among other things. These credentials do matter, because the basis of a person’s regard for your opinion on these sensitive matters starts with your background. It isn’t the whole picture; not every minority person has the same breadth of experiences, and many majority members have been exposed to the problems that minority members face. Also, like anything else, background and privilege are nuanced. Even I have some sources of privilege: I am cisgender and not physically disabled.

Also valued is the nature of a writer’s privilege. I won’t discuss privilege and entitlement too much here, as there are plenty of resources on both, such as this exploration of the different elements of identity.

There are two primary reasons why representation is important: inclusivity and perception .

Seeing people who look, act, and experience life like them in media makes a person feel included in a society, and it reinforces positive views of themselves and what they can achieve in society. Also, members of other groups, especially majority groups, base their ideas of groups on what they see in the media . For example, a hiring manager who watches too many police procedurals might view candidates of minority races as having criminal tendencies.

For people who exist outside of these marginalized and underrepresented groups, it can be hard to imagine life with the experiences and hardships that minorities experience. Without those experiences, writing characters of diverse backgrounds can seem daunting.

A good start is to be cognizant of the problems that your character would face and when those problems would have to be addressed. People of minority groups are still people; we have similar needs and similar motivations. The main difference is in the ways that society and its structures are arrayed against any particular group.

Therefore, in some situations, it will be perfectly acceptable to write a minority character just as you would any other. If a character’s romantic relationships are never brought up, then their sexual orientation might be little more than a footnote. Likewise, a black student’s college career might be just like that of a white student if the college itself is diverse and tolerant.

However, if the character is placed in a situation where their identity would be a factor, then it would be irresponsible to overlook it. For example, a black character being pulled over by the police should be described as feeling exceptional anxiety over their possible treatment by the officers. Whether the writer feels that this is a legitimate fear is irrelevant; it is what black people experience, and it is a problem that we continue to battle . Any work that included a black character getting along famously with the police would be soundly ridiculed by the black community.

Also, it might be tempting to fall back on stereotypes, but these are harmful images that still negatively affect members of those minorities. Take, for example, the common use of Middle Eastern characters as villains , or the portrayal of Native Americans as oversexualized savages . If these are the characters that are being written, then we would rather not have them at all!

Remember that minority characters are not there to be “exotic” ornaments for your plot. One striking example I encountered as an editor was a white writer using an almost all-white cast who included an Asian woman as a manicurist. It was meant as a cheeky observation, but in practice, it supported yet another harmful stereotype, and it would have reinforced to readers that Asian woman are only fit to run nail salons.

Always Do the Research

There is plenty of first-hand material about the situations that minority groups face, and many companies, including mine , offer research specific to fiction writing. If you happen to know someone from the group that you are interested in writing about, then ask that person if they can offer any insight, and be prepared for them to possibly turn you down.

Finally, remember that this is a cultural exchange; you must offer something in return. Consider promoting minority authors. Don’t just tack on characters to be “diverse,” and don’t borrow elements from a group without context, such as European knights using scimitars because they’re “cool.”

For a well-known example of what not to do , observe J. K. Rowling’s approach to including Native Americans in the Potterverse. She combined the hundreds of Native American cultures into one homogenous “community,” reappropriated important cultural touchstones, and supported harmful narratives of Natives accepting white colonialism. Although she was called out on this , she has not publicly apologized or changed her approach.

The best recent example of representation being done right is a film: 2016’s The Accountant , in which the main character, played by Ben Affleck, is high-functioning autistic. While the character is written in a very predictable fashion—aural oversensitivity, emotional vacancy—Affleck’s performance provides nuance that elevates the entire story. It’s clear that he and his supporting cast did the research, and while the movie’s overall effect on the autistic community is debatable, many of us saw pieces of ourselves in its protagonist .

Although the entertainment industry at large is welcoming more content written by minority members, most stories that reach the mainstream are still ones written by the majority—white, straight people. The majority still has a much stronger voice. Use it to amplify positive portrayals of the people who need them the most.

As with anything else, when in doubt, ask.

Look for editors who specifically offer sensitivity reading as part of their processes. Many editors, like those at Shalamar, offer diversity feedback as a matter of course.  Here’s an additional resource to check out if you are incorporating diversity in your work:

Writing Diversity Checklist

We welcome respectful discussion–if you have questions or comments, debra is here to discuss.

Shalamar is a book publishing and author advocacy company based in New Orleans, Louisiana. Created in 2016 by a trio of writers, Shalamar aims to break down barriers to entry in publishing by offering accessible and affordable services to new and undiscovered writers.

The company also supports initiatives to amplify voices from underrepresented and marginalized groups. They can be found at @shalamarllp on Facebook and @ShalamarNOLA everywhere else.

Deborah Dixon is a cofounder, author, and editor at Shalamar . She has published two novels, seven novellas, and numerous short stories of her own.

She is a digital rights and racial justice activist, and her opinions on social issues, the publishing process, and Saints football can be found on Twitter at @Deboracracy .

Angela is a writing coach, international speaker, and bestselling author who loves to travel, teach, empower writers, and pay-it-forward. She also is a founder of One Stop For Writers , a portal to powerful, innovative tools to help writers elevate their storytelling.

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Reader Interactions

October 18, 2020 at 10:26 am

I believe that books are the essence of who we are and who we dream of being. Therefore, representation is a crucial component in building the identity of an individual and its sense of belonging. Reading about someone who looks like you makes you feel that you can achieve anything and that you truly belong in the society. Seeing someone just like me being reflected in a book makes me feel that I’m not the outsider that I always thought I was. However, there is indeed a lack of representation of minority groups in books. I totally agree that the lack of representation has become an important issue in literature and that minorities should be depicted more in books. In that being said however, any representation should not be accepted just because of the lack of it. Disrespectful and damaging representations of minorities should not be tolerated just for the sake of finally being represented in books.

August 13, 2019 at 11:26 pm

Great stuff, and the Shalamar tips before publishing are excellent and extensive! Thanks for this. Will help my Gr 12 English class think oppressive representation that occurs in some of these more subtle ways.

August 13, 2019 at 11:40 pm

August 22, 2019 at 3:51 pm

Thank you so much Wes, and best wishes for your English class! Glad you found this information and the resources helpful. Feel free to reach out if I can help further!

October 12, 2018 at 12:08 am

As a Native American author, I want to thank you for this post. Keep fighting the good fight!

It is hard to find books where people like me aren’t A) Sexy Shifters B) Poor C) Swindlers

Which is funny, since none of the Lenni-Lenape people that I know are any of those. Hang on… *runs outside, looks at the moon, tries real real extra super hard* Nope. Still not a shifter. Darn. 😉

My people also didn’t wear huge feather headdresses, live in teepees, say “howgh” for hello, or most of the other traits that perhaps were exhibited in the western tribes. We did, however, influence the creation of the original laws of this country, such as the Constitution and Bill of Rights. Obviously not well enough to be considered human until 1879, or be eligible to be citizen of the land we’d lived on for thousands of years until 1924, or get the Voting Rights Act fully nailed down (looking at two states right now…). But hey, we tried.

If anyone out there does have a book with well-written Lenni-Lenape characters, please track me down and drop a buy link. I’m always looking!

October 12, 2018 at 2:24 pm

Preach it! I would love to sit many, many non-Native writers (sadly, including some Black ones) down and have them write this sentence a few hundred times:

Native American communities are NOT monolithic.

As you can see above, I refuse to let Rowling live it down.

If anyone out there has a story will well-developed Lenni-Lenape characters, I just might publish it. 😉

October 11, 2018 at 10:02 pm

That’s definitely some great stuff, and I largely agree. I do take issue with simply saying there are some things you should “never do.” For example, making an autistic character have some unique strange ability can work if it’s done well or the usual cliches of the trope are subverted.

I’m not saying that just for the sake of debate. I have autism myself, and my current story in progress plays on that trope.

October 12, 2018 at 2:13 pm

Thank you Claire! And thanks for checking out our list!

The things that made it onto the Never-Do list aren’t there because they can’t be done well, but because when they are done (well or otherwise), they consistently cause harm to real, living people of that particular group.

Regarding autistic characters, I’ll go and change my wording on the list, but I did think specifically of powers that are related to a character’s autism, correcting the ‘imbalance’ of the disability. (An autistic character with, say, lightning powers, unrelated to her autism, would probably be okay.)

Objectively, a disability-superpower autistic character could possibly be done well, especially by an autistic writer, but I respectfully disagree that the character *should* be done even so. Even if the character was brilliant and an excellent role model, like a neurodivergent Wonder Woman, she would still be perpetrating objectifying stereotypes about how we need a ‘cure’ to balance out our deficiencies. It also isolates a model minority within the autistic community, as it elevates ‘superhuman’ autistics (ie savants) above others on the spectrum, valuing them more and devaluing the others as useless or helpless.

(Here’s an article that goes into model minorities more: https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/why-good-doctor-is-bad-medicine-autism-1098809 )

So while this kind of character could work from a character-development standpoint, her existence would cause strain on those of us (like you and me) who deal with autism stereotypes regularly. My opinion is that the character isn’t worth the harm done, but we likely have different experiences and observations that lead to different conclusions. 🙂

October 11, 2018 at 9:15 pm

Wonderful! Very revelant!

October 12, 2018 at 1:29 pm

Thanks for reading, Traci!!

October 11, 2018 at 2:03 pm

First of all, Who Dat!!!

Thank you so much for writing this article, Deborah. I loved that you explained that a writer needs to remember that diverse characters are still human beings. I also hate that you had to say that.

I had a small press from Mississippi, where I’m from, reach out to me about wanting to work with me. The minute they found out I was a lesbian they quickly let me know that they could not work with a story with LGBTQ+ characters, because they wouldn’t know how to market it. It was shocking and saddening. Needless to say, I did not work with them.

Thank you again, and I look forward to checking out your company and your work!

October 11, 2018 at 4:12 pm

Yeah you rite Keli!!!!

I’m sorry to hear about your experience with that press! And yet I’m not surprised. The inclusion of underrepresented writers ourselves is another topic that I’m passionate about, and fortunately I get to work toward that goal through Shalamar.

Being treated that way, particularly by a press that sought you out, had to have stung, and rightfully so; but, with the benefit of hindsight, people that closed-minded would have been rough to work with anyway, so maybe it was for the better, rudeness and prejudice aside.

(Marketing professionals are specifically taught to adapt to different audience, genres, and trends, so that excuse is always code for “we don’t want to work with you.”)

I hope you found a much better home for your writing, and would love to hear from you anytime!

October 11, 2018 at 10:23 am

Glad to have you here discussing something that I think confuses a lot of people because sometimes we can see part of the picture, but not the whole thing and so we don’t necessarily realize the ripples that come from stereotypes or the level of inequity out there.

In our fiction it is our job to make the reader feel part of another’s point of view. I think as a Caucasian and a Caucasian author, I need to work harder to do what I can to make sure all voices are represented. Change comes about through understanding, and this happens at all levels from governing entities to the drivers of industries to the producers of content and the consumers of that content.

Thanks for being here!

October 11, 2018 at 9:06 am

Hi everyone! Angela, thank you SO MUCH for your help and your kindness! You are an inspiration to me as an author advocate. <3

Readers: Thanks for checking out this article! I am happy to answer any further questions you might have here. You can also contact me directly if you'd prefer a one-on-one conversation.

Much love from New Orleans!

October 11, 2018 at 9:03 am

Thanks for being here today, Deborah!

October 11, 2018 at 3:59 pm

Hi Becca! Thanks for having me! 🙂

[…] Ackerman talks about the importance of inclusivity and perception.   Inclusivity prescribes that the characters in the texts that we use should be as […]

[…] Deborah Dixon examine representation in literature: why it’s important and how to handle it. […]

representation - Meaning in Law and Legal Documents, Examples and FAQs

Representation refers to the act of an authorized person, such as a lawyer, speaking or acting on behalf of someone else in legal matters, ensuring their rights and interests are properly advocated for and protected.

In normal language you would also say " advocacy " instead of " representation "

Need help understanding your legal documents?

What does "representation" mean in legal documents?

In legal documents, the term "representation" refers to the act of one party speaking or acting on behalf of another party. This means that the representative is authorized to make decisions, take actions, or provide information on behalf of the person or entity they are representing.

Representation can take many forms, such as a lawyer representing a client in a court case, a business owner authorizing an employee to negotiate a contract, or a parent acting on behalf of their child. The key aspect of representation is that the representative has the legal authority to act in the place of the person or entity they are representing.

When you see the term "representation" in a legal document, it's important to understand the specific context and the nature of the relationship between the representative and the person or entity being represented. This will help you determine the scope of the representative's authority and the responsibilities they have in carrying out their duties.

For example, in a power of attorney document, the person granting the power (the principal) is authorizing the representative (the agent) to make decisions and take actions on their behalf, such as managing their finances or making healthcare decisions. The power of attorney outlines the specific powers and limitations of the agent's representation.

Similarly, in a contract, the parties may be represented by their respective lawyers or other authorized agents. The contract will typically specify the scope of the representatives' authority and the responsibilities they have in negotiating and executing the agreement.

Understanding the concept of representation is crucial in navigating the legal landscape, as it helps you identify the key players involved in a legal matter and the extent of their decision-making power. By familiarizing yourself with this term, you can better understand the roles and responsibilities of the various parties involved in a legal process.

What are some examples of "representation" in legal contracts?

Here are some examples of how the term "representation" might be used in various legal contracts:

Employment Contract: "The employee represents that they have the necessary skills and qualifications to perform the duties outlined in this agreement."

Real Estate Purchase Agreement: "The seller represents that they have the legal authority to sell the property and that there are no outstanding liens or encumbrances on the title."

Loan Agreement: "The borrower represents that they have provided accurate financial information and that they have the ability to repay the loan according to the terms of this agreement."

Merger Agreement: "The parties represent that they have obtained all necessary approvals and authorizations to complete the merger transaction."

Confidentiality Agreement: "The recipient represents that they will keep all information disclosed under this agreement strictly confidential and will not use it for any purpose other than the intended purpose."

Partnership Agreement: "Each partner represents that they will contribute their fair share of resources and expertise to the partnership and will act in the best interests of the business."

Trademark License Agreement: "The licensor represents that they are the rightful owner of the trademark and have the authority to grant the license to the licensee."

These examples illustrate how the concept of representation can be applied in various legal contracts to establish the rights, responsibilities, and authorities of the parties involved.

FAQs about "representation"

What is legal representation.

Legal representation refers to having a qualified lawyer or attorney represent you in legal matters. This means the lawyer will handle all the legal aspects of your case, such as filing paperwork, negotiating with the other side, and appearing in court on your behalf.

Who can provide legal representation?

Legal representation can only be provided by licensed attorneys or lawyers who are authorized to practice law in your state or jurisdiction. These professionals have the necessary education, training, and credentials to represent clients in legal proceedings.

How does legal representation work?

When you hire a lawyer for legal representation, they will first meet with you to understand your situation and goals. They will then develop a legal strategy, handle all the necessary paperwork and communications, and advocate for your interests in negotiations or in court. The lawyer acts as your advocate and advisor throughout the legal process.

What are the benefits of having legal representation?

The main benefits of having legal representation include:

• Expertise in navigating the complex legal system
• Protecting your rights and interests
• Ensuring proper procedures are followed
• Negotiating on your behalf to achieve the best possible outcome
• Reducing the stress and burden of handling legal matters on your own

How much does legal representation cost?

The cost of legal representation can vary widely depending on the complexity of your case, the lawyer's experience, and your location. Many lawyers offer free initial consultations and work on an hourly or contingency fee basis. It's important to discuss the fees and payment options with any potential lawyer before hiring them.

What if I can't afford a lawyer?

If you cannot afford a private lawyer, there are several options available:

• Legal aid organizations that provide free or low-cost legal services to those who qualify based on income
• Pro bono lawyers who volunteer their services for certain types of cases
• Law school clinics where law students, supervised by professors, provide legal assistance
• Payment plans or sliding scale fees offered by some private law firms

The key is to explore all available options to ensure you have the legal representation you need, even if you have limited financial resources.

These legal terms could also be helpful

representative payee

A representative payee, or money manager, is someone legally appointed to receive and manage government benefits on behalf of an individual who is unable to manage their own finances due to age, disability, or other circumstances.

representative

A representative, commonly referred to as a proxy, is someone legally authorized to act on behalf of another person or entity in specific matters or transactions.

A reprieve is a temporary delay or postponement of a punishment or execution, giving someone a chance to have their case reviewed or reconsidered.

repudiation

Repudiation, commonly referred to as rejection, is the act of refusing to honor or fulfill a legal obligation or contract.

Synonyms of representing

• as in describing
• as in depicting
• as in symbolizing
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Thesaurus Definition of representing

Synonyms & Similar Words

• characterizing
• identifying
• charactering
• classifying
• categorizing
• pigeonholing
• distinguishing
• individualizing
• particularizing
• documenting
• illustrating
• delineating
• silhouetting
• caricaturing
• diagramming
• symbolizing
• personifying
• standing for
• exemplifying
• emblematizing
• manifesting
• incarnating
• personalizing
• objectifying
• epitomizing
• materializing

Thesaurus Entries Near representing

represented

representing

Cite this Entry

“Representing.” Merriam-Webster.com Thesaurus , Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/thesaurus/representing. Accessed 30 Aug. 2024.

More from Merriam-Webster on representing

Nglish: Translation of representing for Spanish Speakers

Britannica English: Translation of representing for Arabic Speakers

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Original text

Visual identity is more than just your logo; it’s your brand’s entire  visual representation , including colors, typography, and imagery. A strong visual identity is critical to growing your business in the digital space, where first impressions often happen within seconds.

Because the digital landscape is cut-throat and competitive, a cohesive and appealing visual identity can make all the difference in attracting and retaining customers.

Here are six key ways visual identity directly contributes to your business’s online growth and success.

The Role of Visual Consistency in Building Recognition

A consistent visual identity is critical to becoming recognizable online. When customers see the same logo, color scheme, and design style across touchpoints - from your website, social media, and email newsletters - it reinforces your brand in their minds. Over time, this repetition builds familiarity and trust.

Think of well-known brands like Apple or Starbucks; their consistent visuals make them instantly identifiable, even without their names being present. For growing businesses, maintaining this consistency is crucial to standing out in a crowded market. Using tools like  LOGO.com to create a professional and unique logo is a significant first step toward establishing this visual consistency.

Visual Identity as the Foundation of Brand Image

From the moment someone visits your website or social media profile, the colors, fonts, and overall design convey who you are and what you stand for as a brand or business.

A well-crafted visual identity immediately communicates professionalism and establishes your brand tone. Whether you’re projecting trustworthiness, innovation, or a friendly vibe, your visual elements set that expectation from the get-go.

Suppose your brand’s visual identity is cohesive and aligned with your business values. When that’s the case, it creates a powerful and lasting first impression that lays the foundation for all future interactions with your audience.

How a Strong Visual Identity Builds Trust Online

Since customers can’t interact with you face-to-face, visual identity becomes a primary trust-building tool. People are likely to engage with brands that appear polished and professional.

A cohesive and well-designed visual identity shows that your business is reliable and committed to quality. This element is particularly important online, where customers are often skeptical of unfamiliar brands.

Consider an example where your website, social media profiles, and marketing materials have a unified look. This congruency creates a sense of credibility that encourages customers to take the next step - subscribing, purchasing, or following you which  enhances your business’s reputation and trustworthiness, which are both vital for long-term growth.

Differentiating Your Brand in the Online Marketplace

With several businesses offering identical products or services, your visual identity can be the factor that sets you apart. A unique logo, striking color palette, and memorable imagery help create a distinct brand presence.

For example, brands like Airbnb and Spotify use unconventional, vibrant designs that immediately differentiate them from their competitors. When done right, visual identity makes your brand recognizable and communicates your unique value proposition.

By differentiating your brand visually, you make it easier for customers to remember you, return to you, and choose you over competitors.

Adapting Visual Identity for Cross-Platform and Global Reach

Your visual identity must adapt seamlessly across platforms and markets as your business expands. Consistent visuals on websites, social media, or mobile apps ensure brand recognition. Design elements like logos and colors should be optimized for different formats while maintaining coherence.

Your visual identity must also  resonate across cultures if your brand targets international audiences. Brands like Coca-Cola and Nike succeed globally by keeping their visuals adaptable yet consistent.

Ensuring your brand’s visuals work well across various digital spaces and appeal to diverse audiences is vital to reaching more customers and driving growth.

Wrapping Up

Please don’t underestimate the power of visuals in connecting with your audience and telling them your brand’s story. Take the next step in your brand journey by leveraging resources to help you create an identity that resonates and drives success.

Copyright © 2024 SCORE Association, SCORE.org

Funded, in part, through a Cooperative Agreement with the U.S. Small Business Administration. All opinions, and/or recommendations expressed herein are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the SBA.

University of Notre Dame

Notre Dame Philosophical Reviews

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Inference and Representation: A Study in Modeling Science

Mauricio Suárez, Inference and Representation: A Study in Modeling Science , University of Chicago Press, 2024, 328pp., $35.00 (pbk), ISBN 9780226830049.

Reviewed by Robert Hudson, University of Saskatchewan

What is involved when someone, such as a scientist, uses a model to represent the world? According to Mauricio Suárez, we can examine this question in one of two ways: in terms of an analytic inquiry that answers a ‘constitutional’ question, or in terms of a practical inquiry that answers a ‘means’ question (84–89).

Traditionally, representation is understood constitutionally, “identifying [representation] entirely with the set of facts about the properties of the relata” (7). Here, the relata are the source of representation, “the object doing the representational work”, and the target of representation, “the object getting represented” (6). The traditional approach, which Suárez labels ‘reductive naturalism’, provides a metaphysical analysis of the representational relation, one that “[avoids] any reference to human values [and] . . . the interests, desires, and purposes of the inquirers” (7).

Suárez’s recommended approach is to examine representation in terms of its means, “focusing instead on the very diverse range of models and modeling techniques employed in the sciences”, while paying close attention to “the purposes of those who use and develop the representations” (86). This change of focus reflects, on Suárez’s view, a disciplinary shift in the philosophy of science where analytic inquiries are replaced with “an attempt to understand modeling practices”, a shift indicated by “the intense intention that philosophers have paid to scientific models and modeling practice in the last decades” (85).

Where does this refocusing on matters of scientific practice, and away from questions of metaphysical analysis, lead us? Suárez starts in Chapter 2 by examining the reflections on scientific practice of a unique set of 19th century physicists, Herman von Helmholtz, Heinrich Hertz, James Clerk Maxwell, and Ludwig Boltzmann, and identifies in these reflections an expression of what Suárez calls the ‘modeling attitude’, “a rather loose set of normative commitments . . . that bounds and informs [this] practice within recognized parameters” (44). He continues in Chapter 3 by reviewing a further unique set of contemporary modeling practices rooted in 19th century science, “the engineering model of the 1890 Forth Rail Bridge, the billiard ball model of gases, and stellar structure models in astrophysics” (79). For those familiar with Suárez’s previous work, chapters 2 and 3 constitute new material (xi).

In comparison, chapters 4 to 7 are reworkings of previously published material, developing and arguing for the details of Suárez’s inferential, deflationist theory of model representation, now ‘inspired’ by the 19th century modeling attitude and employing the three case studies as ‘benchmarks’ (84). Chapter 8 presents novel material in support of a deflationist conception. The classic source of philosophical discussion of representation occurs in the philosophy of art and Suárez finds that his representational deflationism “exhibits a notable fit” (223) with Richard Wollheim’s view of the experience of ‘seeing-in’. Chapter 9 concludes the book with original assessments of familiar debates in the philosophy of science. Concerning the realism/anti-realism debate, deflationism resuscitates the tenability of Ian Hacking’s entity realism, Bas van Fraassen’s constructive empiricism, and Arthur Fine’s natural ontological attitude. Further, the turn to emphasizing the role of social practice, characteristic of Suárez’s deflationism, enhances both Philip Kitcher’s ‘real realism’ and Helen Longino’s social epistemology. Finally, the absence of a facticity requirement on successful modeling, as Suárez sees it, provides support for Henk de Regt’s account of scientific understanding.

Suárez’s book rewards the attentive reader with its thorough detail, meticulous argumentation, and scholarly richness. Whether it provides a defensible view of scientific representation turns on whether we describe the representational relation analytically, in terms of the ‘substance’ of this relation (as with reductive naturalism, a substance devoid of “pragmatic elements”; see 91), or practically, deflating this relation and focusing instead on the use of representational sources in generating corroborated inferences about their targets. Classic substantivism views representation in terms of the similarity of a target and a source, or their isomorphism (or weaker, their homomorphism, or other morphism). A recognized problem with substantivism is the phenomenon of misrepresentation (113): where there is no target, or where a target lacks relevant properties, there can be no representation on the substance view as there are no grounds for similarity or isomorphism, and so no misrepresentation.

In contrast, Suárez’s theory of model representation has two components. First, a source represents a target only if the ‘representational force’ of the source “points toward” (9) the target (166). The notion of representational force is understood weakly: a source is directed to the target, and nothing else. The significance of representational force is that this direction is determined practically, in accordance with intended social use (119). This is the deflationary aspect of Suárez’s conception. There’s nothing about the source or the target, in themselves, that necessitates representational force. It follows that anything can represent anything else, the relevant social practice willing (47, 85, 189).

Secondly, on Suárez’s view, a source represents a target only if a source has a “specific inferential capacity” toward a target (166). Inferential capacity comes in two forms. First, there are vertical rules of inference, rules that “apply to the internal workings of the sources considered as self-standing objects” (184). Drawing from Heinrich Hertz, models ( Bilder , for Hertz; 38–39) exhibit ‘conformity’. They possess an internal, “inferential structure” (39) that grants them “a life of their own” (184), one that is “thoroughly social” (227). On the other hand, to serve the purpose of representing a target, a source’s inferential capacity involves horizontal rules of inference “essentially linked to [this source’s social] purposes in surrogative reasoning”, here reasoning about a target to the point of making licensed predictions about the target’s behaviour.

The implications of Suárez’s theory of representation are many. Chapter 7 illustrates the valuable use of surrogative reasoning in Suárez’s chosen case studies, cited above. Also, the application of Suárez’s theory to the philosophy of art opens “a Pandora's box of new questions” as soon as one draws licensed inferences from artworks in a “cultural and political context” (222). Further, Suárez’s deflationism breathes new life into van Fraassen’s constructive empiricism (242–243), now freed of cumbersome metaphysics.

Overall, one would have expected Suárez, given his retrospective position, to have spent more time reviewing published objections to his view. He orients his deflationism in the context of R.I.G. Hughes’ (1997) DDI account (141), arguing that his notion of representational force (“denotative function”) is an improvement on what Hughes calls ‘denotation’ (147–151). On the other hand, Roman Frigg and James Nguyen’s recent DEKI account is ignored, along with its critique of Suárez’s inferentialism. For example, Nguyen and Frigg (2022) object that Suárez fails to satisfactorily answer the “Semantic question: in virtue of what does a model represent its target” (7). Typically, we have an idea about the ‘meaning’ of a model prior to saying what inferences a model prescribes. Inferentialism works the other way. Since representational force, as noted above, is utterly deflated—anything can represent anything else—inferential capacity is the primary driver of meaning. With only inferences at hand, “there is no substantial analysis to be given about scientific representation” (Nguyen and Frigg 2022, 45), about what models represent or mean.

In specifying what it is in virtue of which a model represents a target, we need to say something about what a model is (about what Nguyen and Frigg call a “model object”, 66). This is not to ask for the necessary or sufficient conditions for being a model (its ‘constitution’). It is to ask, in a case where a model represents target, what specifically the model is—what thing it is—that is doing the targeting, just as when someone drives a car we ask, specifically, who is doing the driving, and not for the necessary or sufficient conditions for being a driver. Take, then, Suárez’s case of the Forth Rail Bridge. The (scale) model in this case is a set of engineering blueprints, some of which Suárez reproduces (62–63). These blueprints are the source, the model, and the target is the physical bridge. This is almost right. I have another copy of Suárez’s book, with the same blueprints. I don’t, therefore, have two distinct models of the bridge. It’s one model reproduced twice, reproduced many times in all the copies of the book, reproduced anthropomorphically as on the cover of Suárez’s book, which is itself reproduced multiple times with multiple copies of the book, and so on. So, in specifying what model it is that targets the physical Forth Rail Bridge, we need to look beyond the blueprints. This has nothing to do with the abstractness of the blueprints as a representation of the bridge. The anthropomorphic model is concrete, and with it, too, we need to look beyond the people in the depiction, to the same model that is at issue with the blueprints.

These comments are not original. They speak to the need for caution in talking in a facile way about models, or model objects. Nguyen and Frigg are aware of this need and highlight the relevant ontological issues. One can look at models as (set-theoretic) structures or as fictional entities (2022, 66). Suárez focuses on disputing the structure approach (138). For example, the Forth Rail Bridge blueprints are not set-theoretic. Their creator was not a modern logician. On the other hand, Suárez does not discuss a fictional approach. Arguably, the blueprints are not fictional since both they and the bridge are physically real. The question, for us, is whether Suárez’s deflationism handles this ontological quandary about models.

Consider again the question of the car and who the driver of the car is. A deflationist on this matter sidelines questions about the identity of this individual. Substantivist approaches, such as those based on similarity or isomorphism, encounter counterexamples since, analogously to Suárez’s arguments about models, potential car drivers need not be similar nor isomorphic to one another. The turn to a practical, or ‘means’ inquiry recommends that we look at the socially sanctioned practices of car drivers, without settling on the constitution of these drivers. For example, we might note that car drivers perform certain actions under certain circumstances, and different actions under different circumstances. A full description of these contextualized practices answers the question for a deflationist about who the driver is.

Is this a satisfactory answer to the analogous ontological question about drivers? Not if we think it matters who the driver is, leaving aside the question of their constitutional identity. At the traffic stop, a police officer will ask for the driver’s license and registration in order to pick out the relevant legal individual, not to define this person in terms of the necessary or sufficient conditions for being a driver. It’s a matter of ascribing responsibility for the driver's actions. A deflationist answer, substituting the legal individual with a set of actions practically distinguished by the interests of a community, is misleading since the same individual could perform a different set of actions, and a different individual could perform the same set of actions.

Consider now the Forth Rail Bridge. If one wants a reason for why the bridge has not toppled, one points to the relevant model. We access this model by viewing the blueprints. The blueprints aren’t the model since the blueprints are not responsible for why the bridge has not toppled. One can destroy all the blueprints and the bridge will still not topple. That the bridge has not toppled, or in more scientific cases, the success of one’s inferential practices, does not explain the lack of toppling or the bridge’s continued standing. These points are not distant from Suárez’s thinking. In discussing the Lotke-Volterra equations, Suárez notes that merely satisfying these equations is not enough to explain an observable phenomenon, such as the correlation between predator and prey numbers in the Adriatic Sea, since this correlation could be “entirely spurious or arbitrary” (114). Thus, the Lotke-Volterra theoretical model is more than just the equations and the inferential practices they prescribe. There is something in the world that corresponds to this model, something we have captured in our thinking, something ensuring that the model is not, as Suárez says, “predictively inane” (114). If the Lotke-Volterra model simply prescribes “a nonlinear pair of intermingled equations” and imposes “no requirements whatever on the nature of the objects involved as source or target or their relation” (172), there will be “no explanatory fact underlying the correlation” (114). To me, this sounds like an abandonment of inferentialism.

These critical points aside, Suárez’s book is a richly argued model of scholarship that sets the standard for future investigations into scientific representation.

Hughes, R.I.G. (1997), “Models and Representation,” Philosophy of Science 64: S325–S336.

Nguyen, J. and R. Frigg (2022), Scientific Representation . Cambridge University Press.

1 Unit 1: Introduction to UDL

• Define the social model of disability
• List and define the three UDL principles
• Explain the rationale for using UDL in course design
• Demonstrate an understanding of the emergence of UDL

Before we start talking about Universal Design for Learning (UDL), let’s talk about the social model of disability. The social model of disability is a useful framework to apply when thinking about flexible, accessible course design, and which aligns nicely with UDL.

The social model of disability offers an alternative to the individual model of disability. The individual model of disability locates the ‘problem’ of disability in the individual, a deficit that needs a cure or accommodation. This is the model that is found in medical settings, and it is also used at universities and colleges where students need to have a diagnosed disability to be eligible for accommodation.

In contrast, the social model of disability makes a distinction between “impairment” and “disability.” An impairment is a limitation of the physical body (Oliver, 1996, p. 35). For example, a missing limb or sight loss. In contrast, disability has nothing to do with the body. Disability emerges due to “society’s failure to provide appropriate services and adequately ensure the needs of disabled people are fully taken into account” (Oliver, 1996, p. 32).

Ultimately, the social model of disability, which looks at how the design of things outside of a person can cause disability. For example, a person in a wheelchair experiences disability when a restaurant has a stairs-only entrance. However, if those stairs were a ramp, that barrier would disappear.

A blind student experiences disability when their textbook is only available in print and not a digital format that could be read aloud by their screen reader.

Attribution: “ Social Model of Disability ” by MissLunaRose12 is under a CC BY-SA 4.0 Licenc e.

As such, the social model of disability sees disability emerging when there is a mismatch between a person, their goals, and the tools they have available to them (Mitchell, 2019). With this model, the onus is on the environment to be designed to be accessible, rather than on the individual to adapt to the environment or request an accommodation.

Image description: Mismatch. A rectangle block cannot fit into a round hole.

Attribution: “ Doesn’t fit ” by Maestrosphere is under a Pixabay licence .

In an article by Jan Wilson (2017), she argues that the classroom, “far from neutral, is constructed for a mythical, ‘able-bodied,’ neurotypical norm that neither reflects nor accommodates the wide range of diverse learners within it, regardless of whether these learners have been diagnosed with a disability.”

What she is getting at here is this problem that comes up when we design for what we think is normal, or what we think is average. The reality is, there is no such thing as a normal or average student.

Students vary greatly in their interests, family situation, culture, background, experience, strengths, and weaknesses. And all students benefit when educational materials are designed to be accessible and inclusive.

Other things that may affect a student’s access include:

• The presentation, format, and structure of information
• Day-to-day life and personal responsibilities
• Access to technology and the Internet
• Unfamiliar or complex technology

Ultimately, by being proactive and intentional about the design of your course, you will be able to improve the learning experience for all your students. And that is something that UDL can help with.

Watch Video: https://youtu.be/_-bA63EGTw8

Video attribution: Learning Barriers by UDL IRN is under a CC BY 4.0 Licence.

Watch Video: https://youtu.be/O_MCvjkd8Jc

Video attribution: UDL in Higher Education by UDL on Campus is under a CC BY 3.0 Licence .

Universal Design for Learning (UDL) is a set of principles for curriculum development that aim to give all students equal opportunities to learn. UDL provides a blueprint for creating instructional goals, methods, materials, and assessments that work for everyone—not a single, one- size-fits-all solution, but rather flexible approaches that can be customized and adjusted for individual needs.

UDL considers the variability of all learners—including learners who are often relegated to “the margins” of our educational systems. UDL is influenced by a deep understanding and appreciation for individual variability. There is no such thing as an average student. Classroom diversity is the norm, and UDL is a tool to guide designing for that diversity from the very beginning and eliminate the need to “retrofit” with individualized accommodations.

UDL is a framework, not a checklist. It provides a lens that helps to evaluate and select teaching and learning practices. It is a process, a new way of thinking that requires constant reflection and improvement.

Watch Video: https://youtu.be/x76ylvROOq0

Video attribution: Learner Variability by UDL IRN is under a CC BY 3.0 Licence .

Image attribution: “UDL and the brain” by Commonwealth of Learning is under a CC BY-SA 4.0 Licence. It includes three brain icons by CAST , which are under a CC BY-SA 4.0 Licence .

Universal Design for Learning (UDL) is a design framework based on scientific insights into how humans learn. UDL consists of three learning networks that serve as the foundation of the Universal Design for Learning principles. They are as follows:

• Affective networks – why we engage and persist in learning new ideas;
• Recognition networks – what we see, hear, and read, and how we categorize these ideas; and
• Strategic networks – how we organize and express ideas.

The UDL principles align with these three learning networks. When these networks are effectively activated, learning follows.

Principle 1 : Multiple Means of Engagement

Principle 2 : Multiple Means of Representation

Principle 3 : Multiple Means of Action and Expression

Principle 1: Multiple Means of Engagement

Image description: A Filipinx woman with a filtering face mask sits outside on a picnic table, writing in a notebook.

Image attribution: “ Filter mask – notebook ” by Disabled and Here is under a CC BY 4.0 Licence .

Principle 2: Multiple Means of Representation

Image description: A cartoon figure holding a shopping basket picks between video, audio, graphics, and text to put into their basket.

Image attribution: “ Pixel Cells ” by manfredsteger is under a Pixabay Licence .

Principle 3: Multiple Means of Action and Expression

Each UDL principle includes a set of guidelines and checkpoints that offer more information about the principle. These guidelines offer a blueprint for putting the UDL framework into practice.

CAST has created the following table to represent the guidelines. The guidelines in each column are associated with one of the three principles: multiple means of engagement, multiple means of representation, and multiple means of action and expression.

The guidelines are also organized horizontally. The rows from top to bottom increase in complexity and the degree to which they empower learners:

• In the access row, the goal is to provide barrier-free learning opportunities.
• In the build row, teachers and learners work together to enhance learning opportunities.
• In the internalized row, learners are empowered to take charge of their learning.
• The culminating row in the table describes the attributes of an expert learner.

Table caption : The Universal Design for Learning Guidelines (CAST, 2018).

Image Description: A sidewalk curb cut.

Image Attribution: “ Curb cut for wheelchair ramp ” by Nick-philly is under a CC BY-SA 4.0 Licence .

UDL is influenced by Universal Design in Architecture. Universal Design aims to design physical environments so they are accessible to the widest range of people by default.

An example of universal design in architecture is the curb cut. Curb cuts are where the sidewalk slopes down to meet the street, often by a crosswalk. Curb cuts make it so no one needs to step off a curb to cross the street, which directly benefits people in wheelchairs.

However, it also benefits people with strollers, suitcases, or skateboards. Other examples of universal design in architecture include ramps, automatic doors, and handrails. While each of these things directly makes physical environments more accessible to people with disabilities, they also make the physical environment easier to navigate for everyone.

UDL applies the concept of universal design in physical environments to the design of teaching and learning experiences and materials. It provides an outline of how you can take a proactive approach to plan your courses by thinking about the needs of a range of students.

The UDL framework was developed by CAST. CAST (Center for Applied Special Technology) was founded in 1984 by people who were working in a clinical setting to support students with significant learning needs. They wanted to bring the approaches and technologies they were using into the classroom, as they recognized that the barriers to the student’s participation in class were not the student’s abilities. Instead, the barriers emerged from the design of the environment, curriculum, assessment, and the tools that students had. They wanted to share how barriers could be removed through intentional design and apply brain science research to better support instructors in their approach to teaching (Nelson, 2014).

The UDL framework itself took several years to emerge. In 1988, CAST began focusing on how curriculum design could be improved to better include students with disabilities. And in 1995, CAST began to talk about “Universal Design for Learning” in public talks (CAST, n.d.). Now, CAST is a non-profit educational research and development organization and publisher.

UDL has the following concrete benefits:

• Reduces or eliminates the need for individual accommodations
• Increases flexibility and options for all students
• Helps focus attention on concrete and specific course outcomes

Let’s look at each of these benefits in more detail.

When a variety of options are provided for all students, there is a strong potential to reduce the number of individual accommodations that are required for students with disabilities. This means that students with disabilities can participate in the course in the same way as all other students. This also can help reduce time and effort by instructors and students in making these special arrangements.

For example, if all students are provided with options for both a take- home exam and a timed test, students with disabilities may find that the take-home exam eliminates their need for separate testing setting to obtain more time. If instructors provide videotapes of their lectures and copies of lecture notes for all students, it could eliminate the need for students with disabilities to digitally record their lectures or to request a note-taker.

UDL can have great benefits for students with disabilities, but it also can support the learning and success of students that face different barriers. This includes:

• Students for whom English is not their first language
• Students from different cultural backgrounds
• Students who struggle with or dislike reading

With UDL, instructors do not assume that all students learn or communicate their learning in the same way. Instead, they recognize that students will have a variety of learning preferences, strengths and weaknesses, and personal characteristics and contexts that will influence how they take in knowledge, use it, and express it.

In order to provide increased flexibility in course delivery, supports, and assessment, instructors must have a clear understanding of the essential learning outcomes and objectives of their course. This will allow them to clearly identify the skills and knowledge that are critical, and that students are expected to master. From there, instructors can determine options for assessment and recognize what methods of delivery and student engagement will be a good fit for the type of knowledge and skills they are working to develop in students.

Universal Design for Learning (UDL) is a framework for curriculum development that puts student variability at the centre. Rather than requiring students to adapt to the methods of a course, the goal of UDL is to design a course that is flexible enough to adapt to the needs and strengths of students. As such, UDL is compatible with the social model of disability, which sees disability as emerging by design rather than because of individual impairment.

The Universal Design for Learning framework is structured around

three principles that each align with a learning network in the brain:

• Provide multiple means of engagement that aim to activate affective networks in the brain or why we engage and persist in learning new ideas.
• Provide multiple means of representation that aim to activate recognition networks in the brain or what we see, hear, and read, and how we categorize these ideas; and
• Provide multiple means of action and expression that aim to activate strategic networks in the brain or how we organize and express ideas.

• Which of the following is the correct definition of the social model of disability?

a) A framework that sees disability as due to a disabled person’s inability to fit in with society.

b) A framework that sees disability as an individual problem or affliction.

c) A framework that sees disability as due to society’s failure to support and consider the needs of disabled people.

d) All of the above.

2. Which of the following statements does not describe UDL?

a) With UDL, there is no one correct

b) UDL provides a clear checklist on how to make your course inclusive and accessible.

c) UDL recognizes that students are very different from each

d) UDL was inspired in part by the idea of “universal design” in architecture.

3. Which principle of UDL aligns with the “affective” network, or the “why” of learning?

a) Multiple means of representation

b) Multiple means of engagement

c) Multiple means of action and expression

4. True or false? Universal design for learning only benefits students with disabilities.

5. What influenced the creation of the UDL framework?

a) Universal design in architecture

b) The experiences of people who were supporting students with disabilities

c) The belief that barriers were due to classroom and curriculum design

d) All of the above

6. What is an example of providing multiple means of action and expression?

a) Give students a choice in whether they demonstrate their understanding through a recorded video, a live presentation, a paper, or a test.

b) Give students a choice in whether they watch a video or read an article.

c) Give students a range of case studies to choose

Universal Design for Learning Copyright © by Commonwealth of Learning is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Real Estate Commission Rules Just Changed—Will That Help You?

Find out how much more it’s going to cost you to close on a new house.

Buying a home these days is a lot different than it was…just earlier this month. On August 17, new rules from the National Association of Realtors (NAR) settlement went into effect that will change the way people buy and sell homes, specifically when it comes to how commissions will be paid out to Realtors. (Realtors is a copyrighted term for real estate agents who are members of the NAR and subscribe to its code of ethics.)

In the past, when you bought a home in the United States, you probably didn’t pay your real estate agent’s commission. It’s long been common practice for the seller to pick up the tab for that in addition to paying their own agent’s commission. While there’s no official standard for commissions, this cost usually amounts to somewhere between 5 to 6 percent of a home’s selling price. So, for example, on a home that sells for $500,000, the buyer’s and seller’s agents would split about $25,000 to $30,000 in commissions. This standard practice has provided financial relief to buyers because it meant they didn’t need to bring extra cash to the closing table to cover their agent’s commission on top of all the other expenses they’re responsible for, like a downpayment and closing costs.

Back in March 2024, NAR agreed to pay $418 million to settle antitrust lawsuits alleging it conspired to inflate agents’ commissions, which, in turn, has been artificially driving up the cost of homes. Under the newly enacted rules, sellers will no longer be able to advertise buyer’s agent commissions on the multiple listing services (or MLS), the database agents use for listings. (Think of it as a professional, subscriber-only version of Zillow.) With this change, some sellers may still be willing to pay the buyer agent’s commission, but it will take a little more investigating to find out.

The new rules are intended to prevent agents from searching the MLS for listings offering higher commissions and avoiding showing their clients homes advertising lower ones—an unethical practice known as “steering.” Theoretically, this change should open up more homes for buyers to see, although with most homes posted on sites like Zillow as well, savvy buyers probably already had a short list of homes they’d like to tour and would catch on if they noticed their agent holding any of them back.

Keep reading to learn more about the new real estate commission rules and how they might affect your home-buying process or future sale.

What Exactly Is Changing?

In addition to preventing “steering,” the new rules resulting from the NAR settlement are expected to change the home-buying process in three main ways, although time and individual market conditions will tell how much of an impact they really have. In some cases, the new rules merely standardize practices that are already commonplace.

Who Pays Agents’ Commission Fees

There’s been speculation that the new rules will put an end to the age-old practice of sellers covering the commissions for buyers’ agents, but that’s not necessarily the case—especially in markets that are tipping in favor of buyers or are more neutral.

In a sluggish market, sellers will absolutely still want to sweeten the deal for buyers, and that’s often done by providing credits or concessions—which is money in buyers’ pockets that they can use to, say, replace carpet, make fixes found in an inspection report, temporarily cover an interest rate buydown, or pay their agent’s commission.

“When it’s harder for a seller to sell a property, they will be more incentivized to offer these concessions or credits to the buyer,” Chris Heller, president of Movoto.com , a residential home search website, explains. Whether the buyer then uses those funds to pay their agent, fix up the property, cover closing costs, or a combination of all of the above is now up to the buyer, he explains.

How Buyers Work with Agents

Another change resulting from the lawsuit requires buyers to enter into a representation agreement with their agent before touring homes. During this initial phase, the buyer and agent negotiate commission rates. Agents may have done this in the past, but now it’s a requirement. Some agents might be open to charging a flat fee or to à la carte pricing for their services ($100 bucks for a showing, $300 to write an offer, and so on) instead of taking a percentage of the sale price for a commission. Other agents may begin advertising their commission rates on their websites, leaving it up to the buyer to negotiate anything lower.

How Agents Work With Each Other

The new rules resulting from the settlement eliminate commission advertisements, making it a guessing game as to which sellers will pay commissions to buyers’ agents and if the incentives they’re willing to put forth will be enough to cover the agent’s agreed-upon commission.

“Because [commissions] can no longer be included on the MLS, it has become more complicated for a listing agent to communicate and a buyer’s agent to discover how much, if anything, sellers are willing to pay a buyer’s agent,” Claudia Stallings, CEO of Wallace Real Estate in Knoxville, Tennessee, explains.

Going forward, buyers’ agents will need to contact listing agents directly to determine what, if any, compensation is being offered for a particular listing, Jared Antin , managing director at Elegran Forbes Global Properties, explains.

“While these rules aim to prevent ‘steering’, they can also reduce transparency between agents within the industry,” Antin says.

In other words, agents are now responsible for investigating compensation details for each listing their buyers are interested in, he says, and then communicating that information back to their buyers so that they are informed about any potential commission they, as buyers, need to cover to adhere to the the buyer representation agreement.

What the New Rules Mean for Buyers

While sellers have traditionally paid for a buyer’s agent, some economists argue the price was baked into the home’s list price, which, when you think of it that way, means buyers were essentially paying those commissions all along. That means the compensation structure may not be the biggest change potential buyers feel as a result of the new rules.

Here’s one that might be: Buyers won’t be able to even tour a home with a Realtor before signing a legally binding representation contract now that the new NAR settlement rules are in place. This means buyers will need to commit to one agent, though this is something most agents were likely already requiring early on because they don’t want to waste their time showing a potential buyer several homes only for that buyer to go with another agent. It has also been commonplace in many states prior to the new rules.

Establishing a buyer’s agreement upfront will likely cause more buyers to “interview and vet agents up front, in a similar way that sellers do,” says Brandon Bogard , a licensed associate real estate broker and the cofounder of The Bogard New York Team at Serhant who has appeared on the Netflix show Owning Manhattan .

These agreements are intended to clearly communicate to buyers that commissions are negotiable and to spell out how the buyer’s agent will get paid. If the seller doesn’t cover the commission, the buyer will likely need to pick up the tab. The agreements will also make clear the agent’s responsibilities.

If you, the buyer, end up being responsible for paying your agent because it’s not something the seller will cover, it will likely mean you’ll need to bring more cash to the closing table. This could be a strain for first-time homebuyers who don’t have equity from the sale of a previous home and have already stretched their budget to cover a downpayment.

Think you can roll your Realtor’s commission into your loan? Not so fast. Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac, the government-sponsored enterprises that guarantee most mortgages in the U.S., will not allow buyers’ brokers’ commissions to be added to the purchase price and be financed, Melissa Cohn , regional vice president at William Raveis Mortgage, explains.

One more thing to note during this transition: Buyers who went under contract before the rules were implemented but who have not yet closed will not be affected by these most recent changes.

“The transaction will proceed based on the terms and conditions outlined in the signed contract of sale,” Antin says.

What the New Rules Mean for Sellers

As a seller, your listing agent will no longer be able to advertise on the MLS any information about commissions you’re willing to pay to the buyer’s agent. You could opt against paying the buyer’s agent’s commission altogether, but this strategy might deter buyers unless you’re in a strong seller’s market or your home is priced competitively and you’re expecting to receive multiple offers. If your home has been sitting on the market for several weeks and you’re not getting a lot of showings, stripping away the buyer’s agent commission probably isn’t a good idea, especially if other sellers in your area are still paying these commissions.

Listing Your Home in a Seller’s Market

While we’re no longer in the midst of a home-buying frenzy like we were a few years ago when interest rates dipped under 3 percent, some markets still tip in the favor of sellers. In those markets, buyers are more likely to have to cover their agents’ commissions.

This is similar to other trends we’ve seen in sellers’ markets: When sellers had high demand for their homes in 2021, receiving multiple offers and lines for open houses, many buyers weren’t even asking for fixes that came up on inspection reports because they didn’t want to lose out on the home to a backup offer.

If you’re expecting multiple offers, you might choose to play it closer to the vest about what you’re willing to do for buyers or even advertise that you’re not willing to offer concessions, Katie Wethman, a Realtor licensed in Virginia, Washington D.C., and Maryland with My Move DMV , says. “As always, it comes down to supply versus demand and good negotiation skills,” Wethman says.

To put in another way: If interest rates drop and more buyers come off the sidelines, driving up demand, it’s likely that sellers will once again have the upper hand and be less willing to give credits or cover commissions.

How the New Rules Will Play Out in Real Life

A buyer signs a legally binding contract with the Realtor who will represent them in their home search and purchase, agreeing to negotiated terms that will cover, say, a 2.5 percent commission for the Realtor.

The buyer tours a number of homes and narrows the search down to four that are all listed at about $500,000, which would entitle the buyer’s agent to a $12,500 commission. The agent will need to suss out with the listing agents of each home whether the seller will cover a buyer agent’s fee. Meanwhile, more all-encompassing “buyer credits” can be advertised on the MLS, along with other sites where buyers get information, like Zillow.

Here are some potential scenarios:

House 1: The seller isn’t willing to offer any credits or commissions. The buyer will need to cover the full cost of the commission they agreed upon in the contract with their agent, which in this case would be around $12,500. This approach might work in a seller’s market, but overall it would deter first-time buyers who don’t have the extra cash to pay their Realtor.

House 2: The seller won’t pay a buyer’s agent’s commission but is willing to offer $10,000 in credits. The credit could be used to cover a portion of the agreed-upon commission for the buyer’s agent, but the buyer would need to shore up another $2,500 to fully cover the agreed-upon commission.

House 3: While it’s not allowed to be advertised on the MLS, it’s revealed in a conversation between the buyer’s agent and the listing agent that the seller is willing to cover a 2.5 percent commission for the buyer’s agent. The buyer is off the hook for paying their agent’s commission.

House 4: The seller isn’t offering to pay any commissions but is offering an all-encompassing $15,000 buyer credit. The buyer could use this to pay the $12,500 commission they’ve negotiated with their agent and put the remaining $2,500 toward an update in the home, like new carpet in a bedroom.

If the homes are similar in features and listed at the same price point, the buyer will likely lean in favor of House 3 or 4 since they offer the best incentives.

One interesting caveat of the rules: If the buyer and the buyer’s agent agreed to a specific commission—let’s say 2.5 percent—regardless of what the seller offers, the buyer’s agent is capped at the agreed-upon commission, Justin A. Meyer , an Orlando-based attorney who practices real estate law, says. If the buyer’s agent wants to take a higher commission from a seller who, it turns out, is offering a 3 percent commission, they will need a signed agreement from the buyer in order to do so.

Am I Eligible for Compensation Under the NAR Settlement If I Recently Sold a Home?

As we mentioned above, in addition to the rule changes surrounding commissions, NAR also agreed to pay $418 million to settle antitrust lawsuits, though it claimed no wrongdoing. If you’re a seller who sold a home as far back as 2014 and who paid commissions, you may be eligible to receive compensation from the NAR settlement. The class-action pot of money has now reached more than $980 million. You can find out if you’re eligible for compensation and file a claim online.

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What digital transformation means for your company in 2024.

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Marni Carmichael is the VP of marketing at ImageSource .

Digital transformation is not a one-size-fits-all endeavor. Every organization is at a different stage of its transformation journey. Some are still relying on manual or even paper-based processes, while others have already made significant strides in infrastructure and automation but continue to have gaps in their technology investments or employee procedures.

According to 2022 McKinsey survey data , 90% of “C-level and senior leaders say their organizations have pursued at least one large-scale digital transformation project in the past two years”—but they had seen only 31% of the expected revenue increase and 25% of expected cost savings from the initiative.

The companies that are successful with digital transformation have differentiated themselves by taking bolder strategic actions and making larger investments in technology, including automating processes and adopting new tech more aggressively, leveraging cloud infrastructure more effectively and maintaining a higher level of tech talent throughout the organization.

In my work with organizations of all sizes and across different sectors, I've seen the full range of digital maturity. No matter where your company falls on this spectrum, it’s never too late to get started. Digital transformation is an ongoing, evolving process, and every organization has room for improvement and optimization.

Trump Vs. Harris 2024 Polls: Harris Leads By More Than 5 Points In Latest Survey

Secret service puts $2.5 million bounty on most wanted hacker’s head, apple iphone 16 and iphone 16 plus: everything we know so far, strategies for successful digital transformation, 1. develop a road map.

Digital transformation begins with a clear technology vision for your organization. Convert your existing content—whether it’s in paper files or a database of transactions—into real organizational knowledge that you can use to make decisions. Be honest about where you are now, and start mapping out where you want to be. What are your goals in the next six to nine months? In two to three years? What resources, both internal and external, will you need to achieve these goals?

Talk to your end users to get an accurate picture of your current operations. Your employees are the experts in their jobs, and they may be working harder than they need to be. Ask them how they accomplish key tasks, step by step, and then look for steps that are antiquated or unnecessarily complex and could be solved with simple automation. Focus first on modernizing processes that will have the greatest impact on protections for your organization and your customers, such as those that are public-facing or that handle personally identifiable information (PII).

2. Break Down Silos

Many organizations struggle with fragmented systems and processes, leading to inefficiencies and a lack of visibility across operations. Break down silos by creating a culture of collaboration and transparency. Bring together everyone who is involved in a certain process, and carefully document and confirm each step.

In our work with clients, we help create a "360-degree experience" to see a business process from each participant's role, visualizing bottlenecks and connecting workflow to KPIs. For example, in an HR onboarding scenario, this approach creates a seamless environment in which new hires complete all steps in one place while HR employees track real-time progress and executives access high-level insights on headcount and staffing. It eliminates the need for multiple disconnected tools and provides a single, comprehensive view of the organization’s business processes.

3. Identify Pain Points

Listen to all of the stakeholders involved in digital transformation efforts, and use their feedback to figure out which process steps are important and functioning well and which are broken and causing delays or manual work. Pay special attention to the dissenters; often, the people most resistant to change are those who can provide the most valuable insights into what’s not working.

Be proactive about regularly assessing your technology to ensure it’s still meeting your team’s requirements. Customer-partners often come to us with problems once they are already in an emergency state, and fixing them becomes much more difficult and costly.

4. Prioritize The Cloud

Consider adopting a cloud-first approach to improve your organization’s agility and scalability. We support both cloud-based and on-premise environments, and I've noticed that cloud-first organizations are more likely to stay current and nimble in their technology. They work with partners that can maintain and support the environment as it changes, making fixes, patches and updates in real time. They are able to make the technology decisions that are best for them versus reacting to limitations that a vendor or a solution might introduce. Organizations that stay on-prem tend to get behind on the latest versions

5. Assess Your Staff

​​Having the right team in place is just as important as having the right technology. Evaluate your current technical staff, and pinpoint any skill or knowledge gaps that you need to fill. Are they skilled enough to support where you are in your digital transformation? Can they continue to support you in the next phase?

When hiring new employees, keep in mind that top talent doesn’t want to be supporting older infrastructure. They want to learn new skills and implement new technologies that keep their skills sharp and excited about their work.

6. Find The Right Partners

Partner with vendors or managed service providers that can support you as you work toward your digital maturity objectives. They should be willing to understand your unique challenges and work with your internal team to achieve your goals. A strong partnership can provide the expertise and resources you need to navigate the uncertainties and complexities of digital transformation.

Digital transformation is a continuous journey, not a fixed destination. As you set goals for 2025 and beyond, remember that your goal isn’t just to implement new technologies but to fundamentally reshape how your organization operates, innovates and delivers value in the future.

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