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The teaching business case studies available here are narratives that facilitate class discussion about a particular business or management issue. Teaching cases are meant to spur debate among students rather than promote a particular point of view or steer students in a specific direction.  Some of the case studies in this collection highlight the decision-making process in a business or management setting. Other cases are descriptive or demonstrative in nature, showcasing something that has happened or is happening in a particular business or management environment. Whether decision-based or demonstrative, case studies give students the chance to be in the shoes of a protagonist. With the help of context and detailed data, students can analyze what they would and would not do in a particular situation, why, and how.

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• v.7; Jan-Dec 2021

Case Study Analysis as an Effective Teaching Strategy: Perceptions of Undergraduate Nursing Students From a Middle Eastern Country

Vidya seshan.

1 Maternal and Child Health Department, College of Nursing, Sultan Qaboos University, P.O. Box 66 Al-Khoudh, Postal Code 123, Muscat, Oman

Gerald Amandu Matua

2 Fundamentals and Administration Department, College of Nursing, Sultan Qaboos University, P.O. Box 66 Al-Khoudh, Postal Code 123, Muscat, Oman

Divya Raghavan

Judie arulappan, iman al hashmi, erna judith roach, sheeba elizebath sunderraj, emi john prince.

3 Griffith University, Nathan Campus, Queensland 4111

Background: Case study analysis is an active, problem-based, student-centered, teacher-facilitated teaching strategy preferred in undergraduate programs as they help the students in developing critical thinking skills. Objective: It determined the effectiveness of case study analysis as an effective teacher-facilitated strategy in an undergraduate nursing program. Methodology: A descriptive qualitative research design using focus group discussion method guided the study. The sample included undergraduate nursing students enrolled in the Maternal Health Nursing Course during the Academic Years 2017 and 2018. The researcher used a purposive sampling technique and a total of 22 students participated in the study, through five (5) focus groups, with each focus group comprising between four to six nursing students. Results: In total, nine subthemes emerged from the three themes. The themes were “Knowledge development”, “Critical thinking and Problem solving”, and “Communication and Collaboration”. Regarding “Knowledge development”, the students perceived case study analysis method as contributing toward deeper understanding of the course content thereby helping to reduce the gap between theory and practice especially during clinical placement. The “Enhanced critical thinking ability” on the other hand implies that case study analysis increased student's ability to think critically and aroused problem-solving interest in the learners. The “Communication and Collaboration” theme implies that case study analysis allowed students to share their views, opinions, and experiences with others and this enabled them to communicate better with others and to respect other's ideas which further enhanced their team building capacities. Conclusion: This method is effective for imparting professional knowledge and skills in undergraduate nursing education and it results in deeper level of learning and helps in the application of theoretical knowledge into clinical practice. It also broadened students’ perspectives, improved their cooperation capacity and their communication with each other. Finally, it enhanced student's judgment and critical thinking skills which is key for their success.

Introduction/Background

Recently, educators started to advocate for teaching modalities that not only transfer knowledge ( Shirani Bidabadi et al., 2016 ), but also foster critical and higher-order thinking and student-centered learning ( Wang & Farmer, 2008 ; Onweh & Akpan, 2014). Therefore, educators need to utilize proven teaching strategies to produce positive outcomes for learners (Onweh & Akpan, 2014). Informed by this view point, a teaching strategy is considered effective if it results in purposeful learning ( Centra, 1993 ; Sajjad, 2010 ) and allows the teacher to create situations that promote appropriate learning (Braskamp & Ory, 1994) to achieve the desired outcome ( Hodges et al., 2020 ). Since teaching methods impact student learning significantly, educators need to continuously test the effectives of their teaching strategies to ensure desired learning outcomes for their students given today's dynamic learning environments ( Farashahi & Tajeddin, 2018 ).

In this study, the researchers sought to study the effectiveness of case study analysis as an active, problem-based, student-centered, teacher-facilitated strategy in a baccalaureate-nursing program. This choice of teaching method is supported by the fact that nowadays, active teaching-learning is preferred in undergraduate programs because, they not only make students more powerful actors in professional life ( Bean, 2011 ; Yang et al., 2013 ), but they actually help learners to develop critical thinking skills ( Clarke, 2010 ). In fact, students who undergo such teaching approaches usually become more resourceful in integrating theory with practice, especially as they solve their case scenarios ( Chen et al., 2019 ; Farashahi & Tajeddin, 2018 ; Savery, 2019 ).

Review of Literature

As a pedagogical strategy, case studies allow the learner to integrate theory with real-life situations as they devise solutions to the carefully designed scenarios ( Farashahi & Tajeddin, 2018 ; Hermens & Clarke, 2009). Another important known observation is that case-study-based teaching exposes students to different cases, decision contexts and the environment to experience teamwork and interpersonal relations as “they learn by doing” thus benefiting from possibilities that traditional lectures hardly create ( Farashahi & Tajeddin, 2018 ; Garrison & Kanuka, 2004 ).

Another merit associated with case study method of teaching is the fact that students can apply and test their perspectives and knowledge in line with the tenets of Kolb et al.'s (2014) “experiential learning model”. This model advocates for the use of practical experience as the source of one's learning and development. Proponents of case study-based teaching note that unlike passive lectures where student input is limited, case studies allow them to draw from their own experience leading to the development of higher-order thinking and retention of knowledge.

Case scenario-based teaching also encourages learners to engage in reflective practice as they cooperate with others to solve the cases and share views during case scenario analysis and presentation ( MsDade, 1995 ).

This method results in “idea marriage” as learners articulate their views about the case scenario. This “idea marriage” phenomenon occurs through knowledge transfer from one situation to another as learners analyze scenarios, compare notes with each other, and develop multiple perspectives of the case scenario. In fact, recent evidence shows that authentic case-scenarios help learners to acquire problem solving and collaborative capabilities, including the ability to express their own views firmly and respectfully, which is vital for future success in both professional and personal lives ( Eronen et al., 2019 ; Yajima & Takahashi, 2017 ). In recognition of this higher education trend toward student-focused learning, educators are now increasingly expected to incorporate different strategies in their teaching.

This study demonstrated that when well implemented, educators can use active learning strategies like case study analysis to aid critical thinking, problem-solving, and collaborative capabilities in undergraduate students. This study is significant because the findings will help educators in the country and in the region to incorporate active learning strategies such as case study analysis to aid critical thinking, problem-solving, and collaborative capabilities in undergraduate students. Besides, most studies on the case study method in nursing literature mostly employ quantitative methods. The shortage of published research on the case study method in the Arabian Gulf region and the scanty use of qualitative methods further justify why we adopted the focus group method for inquiry.

A descriptive qualitative research design using focus group discussion method guided the study. The authors chose this method because it is not only inexpensive, flexible, stimulating but it is also known to help with information recall and results in rich data ( Matua et al., 2014 ; Streubert & Carpenter, 2011 ). Furthermore, as evidenced in the literature, the focus group discussion method is often used when there is a need to gain an in-depth understanding of poorly understood phenomena as the case in our study. The choice of this method is further supported by the scarcity of published research related to the use of case study analysis as a teaching strategy in the Middle Eastern region, thereby further justifying the need for an exploratory research approach for our study.

As a recommended strategy, the researchers generated data from information-rich purposively selected group of baccalaureate nursing students who had experienced both traditional lectures and cased-based teaching approaches. The focus group interviews allowed the study participants to express their experiences and perspectives in their own words. In addition, the investigators integrated participants’ self-reported experiences with their own observations and this enhanced the study findings ( Morgan & Bottorff, 2010 ; Nyumba et al., 2018 ; Parker & Tritter, 2006 ).

Eligibility Criteria

In order to be eligible to participate in the study, the participants had to:

• be a baccalaureate nursing student in College of Nursing, Sultan Qaboos University
• register for Maternity Nursing Course in 2017 and 2018.
• attend all the Case Study Analysis sessions in the courses before the study.
• show a willingness to participate in the study voluntarily and share their views freely.

The population included the undergraduate nursing students enrolled in the Maternal Health Nursing Course during the Academic Years 2017 and 2018.

The researcher used a purposive sampling technique to choose participants who were capable of actively participating and discussing their views in the focus group interviews. This technique enabled the researchers to select participants who could provide rich information and insights about case study analysis method as an effective teaching strategy. The final study sample included baccalaureate nursing students who agreed to participate in the study by signing a written informed consent. In total, twenty-two (22) students participated in the study, through five focus groups, with each focus group comprising between four and six students. The number of participants was determined by the stage at which data saturation was reached. The point of data saturation is when no new information emerges from additional participants interviewed ( Saunders et al., 2018 ).Focus group interviews were stopped once data saturation was achieved. Qualitative research design with focus group discussion allowed the researchers to generate data from information-rich purposively selected group of baccalaureate nursing students who had experienced both traditional lectures and case-based teaching approaches. The focus group interviews allowed the study participants to express their perspectives in their own words. In addition, the investigators enhanced the study findings by integrating participants’ self-reported experiences with the researchers’ own observations and notes during the study.

The study took place at College of Nursing; Sultan Qaboos University, Oman's premier public university, in Muscat. This is the only setting chosen for the study. The participants are the students who were enrolled in Maternal Health Nursing course during 2017 and 2018. The interviews occurred in the teaching rooms after official class hours. Students who did not participate in the study learnt the course content using the traditional lecture based method.

Ethical Considerations

Permission to conduct the study was granted by the College Research and Ethics Committee (XXXX). Prior to the interviews, each participant was informed about the purpose, benefits as well as the risks associated with participating in the study and clarifications were made by the principal researcher. After completing this ethical requirement, each student who accepted to participate in the study proceeded to sign an informed consent form signifying that their participation in the focus group interview was entirely voluntary and based on free will.

The anonymity of study participants and confidentiality of their data was upheld throughout the focus group interviews and during data analysis. To enhance confidentiality and anonymity of the data, each participant was assigned a unique code number which was used throughout data analysis and reporting phases. To further assure the confidentiality of the research data and anonymity of the participants, all research-related data were kept safe, under lock and key and through digital password protection, with unhindered access only available to the research team.

Research Intervention

In Fall 2017 and Spring 2018 semesters, as a method of teaching Maternal Health Nursing course, all students participated in two group-based case study analysis exercises which were implemented in the 7 th and 13 th weeks. This was done after the students were introduced to the case study method using a sample case study prior to the study. The instructor explained to the students how to solve the sample problem, including how to accomplish the role-specific competencies in the courses through case study analysis. In both weeks, each group consisting of six to seven students was assigned to different case scenarios to analyze and work on, after which they presented their collective solution to the case scenarios to the larger class of 40 students. The case scenarios used in both weeks were peer-reviewed by the researchers prior to the study.

Pilot Study

A group of three students participated as a pilot group for the study. However, the students who participated in the pilot study were not included in the final study as is general the principle with qualitative inquiry because of possible prior exposure “contamination”. The purpose of piloting was to gather data to provide guidance for a substantive study focusing on testing the data collection procedure, the interview process including the sequence and number of questions and probes and recording equipment efficacy. After the pilot phase, the lessons learned from the pilot were incorporated to ensure smooth operations during the actual focus group interview ( Malmqvist et al., 2019 .

Data Collection

The focus group interviews took place after the target population was exposed to case study analysis method in Maternal Health Nursing course during the Fall 2017 and Spring 2018 semesters. Before data collection began, the research team pilot tested the focus group interview guide to ensure that all the guide questions were clear and well understood by study participants.

In total, five (5) focus groups participated in the study, with each group comprising between four and six students. The focus group interviews lasted between 60 and 90 min. In addition to the interview guide questions, participants’ responses to unanswered questions were elicited using prompts to facilitate information flow whenever required. As a best practice, all the interviews were audio-recorded in addition to extensive field notes taken by one of the researchers. The focus group interviews continued until data saturation occurred in all the five (5) focus groups.

Credibility

In this study, participant's descriptions were digitally audio recorded to ensure that no information was lost. In order to ensure that the results are accurate, verbatim transcriptions of the audio recordings were done supported by interview notes. Furthermore, interpretations of the researcher were verified and supported with existing literature with oversight from the research team.

Transferability

The researcher provided a detailed description about the study settings, participants, sampling technique, and the process of data collection and analyses. The researcher used verbatim quotes from various participants to aid the transferability of the results.

Dependability

The researcher ensured that the research process is clearly documented, traceable, and logical to achieve dependability of the research findings. Furthermore, the researcher transparently described the research steps, procedures and process from the start of the research project to the reporting of the findings.

Confirmability

In this study, confirmability of the study findings was achieved through the researcher's efforts to make the findings credible, dependable, and transferable.

Data Analysis

Data were analyzed manually after the lead researcher integrated the verbatim transcriptions with the extensive field notes to form the final data set. Data were analyzed thematically under three thematic areas of a) knowledge development; b) critical thinking and problem solving; and (c) communication and collaboration, which are linked to the study objectives. The researchers used the Six (6) steps approach to conduct a trustworthy thematic analysis: (1) familiarization with the research data, (2) generating initial codes, (3) searching for themes, (4) reviewing the themes, (5) defining and naming themes, (6) writing the report ( Nowell et al., 2017 ).

The analysis process started with each team member individually reading and re-reading the transcripts several times and then identifying meaning units linked to the three thematic areas. The co-authors then discussed in-depth the various meaning units linked to the thematic statements until consensus was reached and final themes emerged based on the study objectives.

A total of 22 undergraduate third-year baccalaureate nursing students who were enrolled in the Maternal Health Nursing Course during the Academic Years 2017 and 2018 participated in the study, through five focus groups, with each group comprising four to six students. Of these, 59% were females and 41% were males. In total, nine subthemes emerged from the three themes. Under knowledge development, emerged the subthemes, “ deepened understanding of content ; “ reduced gap between theory and practice” and “ improved test-taking ability ”. While under Critical thinking and problem solving, emerged the subthemes, “ enhanced critical thinking ability ” and “ heightened curiosity”. The third thematic area of communication and collaboration yielded, “ improved communication ability ”; “ enhanced team-building capacity ”; “ effective collaboration” and “ improved presentation skills ”, details of which are summarized in Table 1 .

Table 1.

Objective Linked Themes and Student Perceptions of Outcome Case Study Analysis.

Theme 1: Knowledge Development

In terms of knowledge development, students expressed delight at the inclusion of case study analysis as a method during their regular theory class. The first subtheme related to knowledge development that supports the adoption of the case study approach is its perceived benefit of ‘ deepened understanding of content ’ by the students as vividly described by this participant:

“ I was able to perform well in the in-course exams as this teaching method enhanced my understanding of the content rather than memorizing ” (FGD#3).

The second subtheme related to knowledge development was informed by participants’ observation that teaching them using case study analysis method ‘ reduced the gap between theory and practice’. This participant's claim stem from the realization that, a case study scenario his group analyzed in the previous week helped him and his colleagues to competently deal with a similar situation during clinical placement the following week, as articulated below:

“ You see when I was caring for mothers in antenatal unit, I could understand the condition better and could plan her care well because me and my group already analyzed a similar situation in class last week which the teacher gave us, this made our work easier in the ward”. (FGD#7).

Another student added that:

“ It was useful as what is taught in the theory class could be applied to the clinical cases.”

This ‘theory-practice’ connection was particularly useful in helping students to better understand how to manage patients with different health conditions. Interestingly, the students reported that they were more likely to link a correct nursing care plan to patients whose conditions were close to the case study scenarios they had already studied in class as herein affirmed:

“ …when in the hospital I felt I could perceive the treatment modality and plan for [a particular] nursing care well when I [had] discussed with my team members and referred the textbook resource while performing case study discussion”. (FGD#17).

In a similar way, another student added:

“…I could relate with the condition I have seen in the clinical area. So this has given me a chance to recall the condition and relate the theory to practice”. (FGD#2) .

The other subtheme closely related to case study scenarios as helping to deepen participant's understanding of the course content, is the notion that this teaching strategy also resulted in ‘ improved test taking-ability’ as this participant's verbatim statement confirms:

“ I could answer the questions related to the cases discussed [much] better during in-course exams. Also [the case scenarios] helped me a great deal to critically think and answer my exam papers” (FGD#11).

Theme 2: Critical Thinking and Problem Solving

In this subtheme, students found the case study analysis as an excellent method to learn disease conditions in the two courses. This perceived success with the case study approach is associated with the method's ability to ‘ enhance students’ critical thinking ability’ as this student declares:

“ This method of teaching increased my ability to think critically as the cases are the situations, where we need to think to solve the situation”. (FGD#5)

This enhanced critical thinking ability attributed to case study scenario analysis was also manifested during patient care where students felt it allowed them to experience a “ flow of patient care” leading to better patient management planning as would typically occur during case scenario analysis. In support of this finding, a participant mentioned that:

“ …I could easily connect the flow of patient care provided and hence was able to plan for [his] management as often required during case study discussion” (FGD#12)

Another subtheme linked with this theme is the “ heightened curiosity” associated with the case scenario discussions. It was clear from the findings that the cases aroused curiosity in the mind of the students. This heightened interest meant that during class discussion, baccalaureate nursing students became active learners, eager to discover the next set of action as herein affirmed:

“… from the beginning of discussion with the group, I was eager to find the answer to questions presented and wanted to learn the best way for patient management” (FGD#14)

Theme 3: Communication and Collaboration

In terms of its impact on student communication, the subtheme revealed that case study analysis resulted in “ improved communication ability” among the nursing students . This enhanced ability of students to exchange ideas with each other may be attributed to the close interaction required to discuss and solve their assigned case scenarios as described by the participant below:

“ as [case study analysis] was done in the way of group discussion, I felt me and my friends communicated more within the group as we discussed our condition. We also learnt from each other, and we became better with time.” (FGD#21).

The next subtheme further augments the notion that case study analysis activities helped to “ enhance team-building capacity” of students as this participant affirmatively narrates:

“ students have the opportunity to meet face to face to share their views, opinion, and their experience, as this build on the way they can communicate with each other and respect each other's opinions and enhance team-building”. (FGD#19).

Another subtheme revealed from the findings show that the small groups in which the case analysis occurs allowed the learners to have deeper and more focused conversations with one another, resulting in “ an effective collaboration between students” as herein declared:

“ We could collaborate effectively as we further went into a deep conversation on the case to solve”. (FGD#16).

Similarly, another student noted that:

“ …discussion of case scenarios helped us to prepare better for clinical postings and simulation lab experience” (FGD#5) .

A fourth subtheme related to communication found that students also identified that case study analysis resulted in “ improved presentation skills”. This is attributed in part to the preparation students have to go through as part of their routine case study discussion activities, which include organizing their presentations and justifying and integrating their ideas. Besides readying themselves for case presentations, the advice, motivation, and encouragement such students receive from their faculty members and colleagues makes them better presenters as confirmed below:

“ …teachers gave us enough time to prepare, hence I was able to present in front of the class regarding the finding from our group.” (FGD#16).

In this study, the researches explored learner's perspectives on how one of the active teaching strategies, case study analysis method impacted their knowledge development, critical thinking, and problem solving as well as communication and collaboration ability.

Knowledge Development

In terms of knowledge development, the nursing students perceived case study analysis as contributing toward: (a) deeper understanding of content, (b) reducing gap between theory and practice, and (c) improving test-taking ability. Deeper learning” implies better grasping and retention of course content. It may also imply a deeper understanding of course content combined with learner's ability to apply that understanding to new problems including grasping core competencies expected in future practice situations (Rickles et al., 2019; Rittle-Johnson et al., 2020 ). Deeper learning therefore occurs due to the disequilibrium created by the case scenario, which is usually different from what the learner already knows ( Hattie, 2017 ). Hence, by “forcing” students to compare and discuss various options in the quest to solve the “imbalance” embedded in case scenarios, students dig deeper in their current understanding of a given content including its application to the broader context ( Manalo, 2019 ). This movement to a deeper level of understanding arises from carefully crafted case scenarios that instructors use to stimulate learning in the desired area (Nottingham, 2017; Rittle-Johnson et al., 2020 ). The present study demonstrated that indeed such carefully crafted case study scenarios did encourage students to engage more deeply with course content. This finding supports the call by educators to adopt case study as an effective strategy.

Another finding that case study analysis method helps in “ reducing the gap between theory and practice ” implies that the method helps students to maintain a proper balance between theory and practice, where they can see how theoretical knowledge has direct practical application in the clinical area. Ajani and Moez (2011) argue that to enable students to link theory and practice effectively, nurse educators should introduce them to different aspects of knowledge and practice as with case study analysis. This dual exposure ensures that students are proficient in theory and clinical skills. This finding further amplifies the call for educators to adequately prepare students to match the demands and realities of modern clinical environments ( Hickey, 2010 ). This expectation can be met by ensuring that student's knowledge and skills that are congruent with hospital requirements ( Factor et al., 2017 ) through adoption of case study analysis method which allows integration of clinical knowledge in classroom discussion on regular basis.

The third finding, related to “improved test taking ability”, implies that case study analysis helped them to perform better in their examination, noting that their experience of going through case scenario analysis helped them to answer similar cases discussed in class much better during examinations. Martinez-Rodrigo et al. (2017) report similar findings in a study conducted among Spanish electrical engineering students who were introduced to problem-based cooperative learning strategies, which is similar to case study analysis method. Analysis of student's results showed that their grades and pass rates increased considerably compared to previous years where traditional lecture-based method was used. Similar results were reported by Bonney (2015) in an even earlier study conducted among biology students in Kings Borough community college students, in New York, United States. When student's performance in examination questions covered by case studies was compared with class-room discussions, and text-book reading, case study analysis approach was significantly more effective compared to traditional methods in aiding students’ performance in their examinations. This finding therefore further demonstrates that case study analysis method indeed improves student's test taking ability.

Critical Thinking and Problem Solving

In terms of critical thinking and problem-solving ability, the use of case study analysis resulted in two subthemes: (a) enhanced critical thinking ability and (b) heightened learner curiosity. The “ enhanced critical thinking ability” implies that case analysis increased student's ability to think critically as they navigated through the case scenarios. This observation agrees with the findings of an earlier questionnaire-based study conducted among 145 undergraduate business administration students at Chittagong University, Bangladesh, that showed 81% of respondents agree that case study analysis develops critical thinking ability and enables students to do better problem analysis ( Muhiuddin & Jahan, 2006 ). This observation agrees with the findings of an earlier study conducted among 145 undergraduate business administration students at Chittagong University, Bangladesh. The study showed that 81% of respondents agreed that case study analysis facilitated the development of critical thinking ability in the learners and enabled the students to perform better with problem analysis ( Muhiuddin & Jahan, 2006 ).

More recently, Suwono et al. (2017) found similar results in a quasi-experimental research conducted at a Malaysian university. The research findings showed that there was a significant difference in biological literacy and critical thinking skills between the students taught using socio-biological case-based learning and those taught using traditional lecture-based learning. The researchers concluded that case-based learning enhanced the biological literacy and critical thinking skills of the students. The current study adds to the existing pedagogical knowledge base that case study methodology can indeed help to deepen learner's critical thinking and problem solving ability.

The second subtheme related to “ heightened learner curiosity” seems to suggest that the case studies aroused problem-solving interest in learners. This observation agrees with two earlier studies by Tiwari et al. (2006) and Flanagan and McCausland (2007) who both reported that most students enjoyed case-based teaching. The authors add that the case study method also improved student's clinical reasoning, diagnostic interpretation of patient information as well as their ability to think logically when presented a challenge in the classroom and in the clinical area. Jackson and Ward (2012) similarly reported that first year engineering undergraduates experienced enhanced student motivation. The findings also revealed that the students venturing self-efficacy increased much like their awareness of the importance of key aspects of the course for their future careers. The authors conclude that the case-based method appears to motivate students to autonomously gather, analyze and present data to solve a given case. The researchers observed enhanced personal and collaborative efforts among the learners, including improved communication ability. Further still, learners were more willing to challenge conventional wisdom, and showed higher “softer” skills after exposure to case analysis based teaching method. These findings like that of the current study indicate that teaching using case based analysis approach indeed motivates students to engage more in their learning, there by resulting in deeper learning.

Communication and Collaboration

Case study analysis is also perceived to result in: (a) improved communication ability; (b) enhanced team -building capacity, (c) effective collaboration ability, and (d) enhanced presentation skills. The “ improved communication ability ” manifested in learners being better able to exchange ideas with peers, communicating their views more clearly and collaborating more effectively with their colleagues to address any challenges that arise. Fini et al. (2018) report comparable results in a study involving engineering students who were subjected to case scenario brainstorming activities about sustainability concepts and their implications in transportation engineering in selected courses. The results show that this intervention significantly improved student's communication skills besides their higher-order cognitive, self-efficacy and teamwork skills. The researchers concluded that involving students in brainstorming activities related to problem identification including their practical implications, is an effective teaching strategy. Similarly, a Korean study by Park and Choi (2018) that sought to analyze the effects of case-based communication training involving 112 sophomore nursing students concluded that case-based training program improved the students’ critical thinking ability and communication competence. This finding seems to support further the use of case based teaching as an effective teaching-learning strategy.

The “ enhanced team-building capacity” arose from the opportunity students had in sharing their views, opinions, and experiences where they learned to communicate with each other and respect each other's ideas which further enhance team building. Fini et al. (2018) similarly noted that increased teamwork levels were seen among their study respondents when the researchers subjected engineering students to case scenario based-brainstorming activities as occurs with case study analysis teaching. Likewise, Lairamore et al. (2013) report similar results in their study that showed that case study analysis method increased team work ability and readiness among students from five health disciplines in a US-based study.

The finding that case study analysis teaching method resulted in “ effective collaboration ability” among students manifested as students entered into deep conversation as they solved the case scenarios. Rezaee and Mosalanejad (2015) assert that such innovative learning strategies result in noticeable educational outcomes, such as greater satisfaction with and enjoyment of the learning process ( Wellmon et al., 2012 ). Further, positive attitudes toward learning and collaboration have been noted leading to deeper learning as students prepare for case discussions ( Rezaee & Mosalanejad, 2015 ). This results show that case study analysis can be utilized by educators to foster professional collaboration among their learners, which is one of the key expectations of new graduates today.

The finding associated with “improved presentation skills” is consistent with the results of a descriptive study in Saudi Arabia that compared case study and traditional lectures in the teaching of physiology course to undergraduate nursing students. The researchers found that case-based teaching improved student’ overall knowledge and performance in the course including facilitating the acquisition of skills compared to traditional lectures ( Majeed, 2014 ). Noblitt et al. (2010) report similar findings in their study that compares traditional presentation approach with the case study method for developing and improving student's oral communication skills. This finding extends our understanding that case study method improves learners’ presentation skills.

The study was limited to level third year nursing students belonging to only one college and the sample size, which might limit the transferability of the study findings to other settings.

Implications for Practice

These study findings add to the existing body of knowledge that places case study based teaching as a tested method that promotes perception learning where students’ senses are engaged as a result of the real-life and authentic clinical scenarios ( Malesela, 2009 ), resulting in deeper learning and achievement of long-lasting knowledge ( Fiscus, 2018 ). The students reported that case scenario discussions broadened their perspectives, improved their cooperation capacity and communication with each other. This teaching method, in turn, offers students an opportunity to enhance their judgment and critical thinking skills by applying theory into practice.

These skills are critically important because nurses need to have the necessary knowledge and skills to plan high quality care for their patients to achieve a speedy recovery. In order to attain this educational goal, nurse educators have to prepare students through different student- centered strategies. The findings of our study appear to show that when appropriately used, case-based teaching results in acquisition of disciplinary knowledge manifested by deepened understanding of course content, as well as reducing the gap between theory and practice and enhancing learner's test-taking-ability. The study also showed that cased based teaching enhanced learner's critical thinking ability and curiosity to seek and acquire a deeper knowledge. Finally, the study results indicate that case study analysis results in improved communication and enhanced team-building capacity, collaborative ability and improved oral communication and presentation skills. The study findings and related evidence from literature show that case study analysis is well- suited approach for imparting knowledge and skills in baccalaureate nursing education.

This study evaluated the usefulness of Case Study Analysis as a teaching strategy. We found that this method of teaching helps encourages deeper learning among students. For instructors, it provides the opportunity to tailor learning experiences for students to undertake in depth study in order to stimulate deeper understanding of the desired content. The researchers conclude that if the cases are carefully selected according to the level of the students, and are written realistically and creatively and the group discussions keep students well engaged, case study analysis method is more effective than other traditional lecture methods in facilitating deeper and transferable learning/skills acquisition in undergraduate courses.

Conflict of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

ORCID iD: Judie Arulappan https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2788-2755

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Student case competitions

Case competitions can play a role in highlighting the many skills involved in case writing, teaching and learning. They can benefit faculty, researchers and students and offer the opportunity to showcase expertise at business schools and universities.

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Aarhus Case Competition is an annual case competition founded in 2011. It is the largest case competition in the Nordics with over 650 participants, divided into two case tracks, Advanced and Aspire. The first track is Advanced, which consists of 27 top students divided into nine teams. They are recruited from all around the world to compete in creating the best case solutions. The other track is Aspire Case Camp, open for all students at Aarhus University, both experienced case solvers and people who are new to case solving. Throughout the week, Aspire and Advanced will solve the same three cases presented to them by the case company as if they were real-life consultants.

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Home > Books > Leadership in a Changing World - A Multidimensional Perspective

Leadership Challenges among Undergraduate Students: Case Study of Dominion University, Ibadan

Submitted: 21 November 2021 Reviewed: 16 December 2021 Published: 02 March 2022

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.102056

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Student leadership is critical too for the smooth running of the University. Unlike other areas of human endeavor, leadership challenges among undergraduate students are a phenomenon. It is against this background; this chapter examined the leadership challenges among students of Dominion University, Ibadan, Nigeria. It is an empirical study. It is a qualitative study. Data; were gathered through in-depth interviews, key informant interviews, and focus group discussions. The study also made use of non-participant observation. Data; were gathered from 100 L, 200 L, 300 L students and staff of the University. Data were zanalyzed using content analyzed and using the narrative style. Findings show that Dominion University has the mandate of producing; value-based education. Leadership challenges undergraduate students include lack of support for selected leaders, lack of respect, and the wrong perception. The chapter concludes that with the right kind of training, Dominion University leadership skills acquisition can transform the plethora of challenges facing undergraduate leaders in Dominion University.

• dominion university
• undergraduate

Author Information

Afatakpa fortune *.

• Department of General Studies, Dominion University, Ibadan, Nigeria

Okedare David Olubunkunmi

*Address all correspondence to: [email protected]

1. Introduction

The management of a university system is a tripod stand: The University Management led by the Vice-Chancellor, the lecturers, and organized student body. But, this chapter focuses on the leadership challenges among undergraduate students. According to Kunz and Garner [ 1 ], excellence in the students can empower others while managing themselves. Consequently, leadership is critical to undergraduate students in our contemporary world. It entails the development of student leadership teams and helping the University Management team to implement the decisions of management. Aymoldanovnaa et al. [ 2 ] acknowledge the active participation of students in corporate governance. It is a crucial element needed for a university to thrive. Aymoldanovnaa et al. [ 2 ]; maintain that engaging students as part of the governance structure would open spaces to develop their leadership skills, increase management skills, take responsibility, and manage competitiveness. These are relevant skills needed to thrive and survive; in the global market. Universities have their traditions and characteristics; they are critical to determining how undergraduate students can manage and govern themselves. This chapter provides an exploratory insight into the leadership challenges among the undergraduate students of Dominion University. The chapter has six sections. Section one is the introduction; it gives the background to the study. Section two deals with reviews of extant studies to identify the gap(s) to fill. The methodology is in section three. Section four focuses on the findings and, section five will discuss and analyze. While section six concludes the study.

2. Literature review

Student leadership among undergraduates has attracted attention of scholars. Zuokemefa and Sese [ 3 ] focus attention on the challenges of student union leadership in Nigeria’s polytechnics, colleges of education, and universities. They contend that the insensitivity of the authorities to the needs of students is a trigger of conflict between them and the student’s leadership. The article speaks to the importance of university authorities lending listening ears to other layers of leadership; to forestall conflict. Ezekwem [ 4 ] believes that conflict emanates in a University system when the Authorities do not respect the opinions of student leaders. The submission of Ezekwem establishes the cultural idiosyncrasy that youths should be seen but should not be heard. Rachel and Odey [ 5 ] uncovered that there is; a high level of conflict emanating from undergraduate students in their leadership pursuit. Furthermore, conflict among undergraduate leadership is a result of the accruable financial and material benefits. They maintain that as long as a leadership position among undergraduate students is economically lucrative, the conflict will be rife. Leadership challenges among undergraduate students are often by the University Authorities. They provide financial and material resources to students’ leadership to tame their fellow students. Accordingly, the extravagant lifestyles of student leaders on campus is a critical challenge to undergraduate leadership in Nigerian universities [ 6 ]. Rachel and Odey [ 5 ] and Usman [ 6 ] establish the effects of elite conspiracy in creating toxicity among students. Olaniyi [ 7 ] believes that leadership challenges among undergraduate students are traceable to the high level of corruption in the university system. He explained that some students do not respect student leadership because of their connection with lecturers. Equally, students tagged as “lecturers’ boys” are known to display flagrant disrespect to their fellow students occupying leadership positions. Also, student leadership challenges are traceable to the inability of University Authorities to provide enabling environment for them to thrive. Where a platform is for students’ leadership, they micromanage them. It is a cause of friction between student leadership and the University Authorities in Nigeria [ 8 ]. It speaks to the thesis that constituted authority manipulate because of their hidden agenda. Leadership challenges among undergraduate leaders are traceable to the lack of leadership skills. The leadership challenges among students are attributed; to the failure of the Nigerian Universities to equip them with the relevant skills. According to Anunobi [ 8 ], twenty-first century students must develop leadership skills that can enable them to engage their fellow students. Twenty-first century leadership skills such as critical thinking, emotional intelligence, and financial intelligence; should be developed in students. She believes the failure to incorporate these skills will lead to contentions between students and leaders. Muftahu [ 9 ] opines that leadership challenges are endemic when institutional leaders (including student leaders) because many are untrained. It is sacrosanct to integrate leadership training in the learning management of tertiary institutions in Nigeria. As important as these studies, they offer no insight on leadership challenges among undergraduate students in Dominion University, Ibadan, Nigeria. This chapter fills the gap.

3. Methodology

It is empirical. It is also a qualitative study that engages case study research design. The study was at Dominion University, Ibadan, Nigeria. It is a seven (7) month research; conducted between January and July 2021. It relied on primary data collected from the students, lecturers, and management of the University. The students’ population of Dominion as at the time of writing this chapter is three hundred and fifty-four (354) comprising 100 L, 200 L, and 300 L students. The staff population of the University is sixty (60). A total of Ninety (90) interviews were carried out; In-depth with Lecturers (14). Key informants’ interviews with Course Representatives (20); Students Female Hall Residence 1 Representatives (5); Student Female Hall of Residence 2 Representatives (5); Male Hall of Residence Representatives (10). Dean of Students Affairs (1). Female Hall Wardens (3); Male Hall Warden (1); Presiding Bishop of Victory International Church. Three Focus Group Discussion (FGD) comprising 10 participants were for; 100 L, 200 L, and 300 L students. The study also made use of non-participant observation. The respondents were purposively selected. The interviews are in the English Language. Data collected were content analyzed using the narrative method.

4. Leadership in the context of this study

The new Oxford Dictionary of English explains that leadership is “the action of leading a group of people or an organization, the state or position of being a leader”. Merriam-Webster Dictionary believes that leadership is “the office or position of a leader, the capacity to lead, and the act or instance of leading” [ 10 ]. However, among the numerous synonyms proposed by Merriam-Webster, the following should be taken note of administration, direction, shepherding, care, and stewardship. This definition shall apply to this chapter.

5. Findings and discussion

5.1 brief history of dominion university, ibadan.

The proprietor of Dominion University is Rehoboth Cathedral, Victory International Church. The Church is well experienced in the management of educational institutions. Rehoboth Cathedral, Victory International Church, has two other institutions performing excellently. The schools are the; Victory Christian Academy and the Victory Christian College. The Presiding Bishop of Rehoboth Cathedral, Bishop Taiwo Adelakun affirms that the idea of providing access to university education was conceived by the Church out of its desire to contribute to the promotion of academic standards of university education in Nigeria. He explained that providing access to university education was conceived by the Church. It was born out of the desire to add value to the eroding standards of tertiary education in Nigeria. His explanation substantiates Bowman [ 11 ] that corporate goals are; enhanced through vision. It dictates change by inspiring motivation and galvanizing an integrated corporate pursuit. In the words of Bishop Taiwo Adelakun:

The desire to establish a university started some twelve years ago when as the Visioner, I was praying for the Nation, Nigeria. I was burdened by the vices bedeviling the Nation’s tertiary institutions. I then received a vision from the Lord asking me to take positive steps in curbing the menace. I was told to take a child from birth into the Daycare Center, then through Nursery and Primary School up to the Secondary and University, instilling the fear of God into them while training their souls academically [ 12 ].

The above statement corroborates Bowman [ 11 ] vision helps to clarify purpose. According to Bowman, vision; enhances the clarity of the bigger picture. The “take a child from birth into the Daycare Centre, then through Nursery and Primary School up to the Secondary and University, instilling the fear of God into them while training their souls academically” speaks to submission of Bowman [ 11 ] that dreams and passions are driven; by vision. It goes beyond the setting and attainment of goals. It provides the vigor and energy for the generation of results.

Bishop Adelakun attested that Dominion University is raising generational leaders in all fields of endeavor. It also boils down to the power of vision providing meaning to life. Fishman [ 13 ] espouses that vision propels a meaningful life. It is the compass that dictates the pathway of the choices we make. Thus, every life’s pursuit should be guided; by the vision. Bishop Adelakun contends that Africa is the most endowed continent. In terms of resources, one of the poorest continents on earth hence, the need for a university that will address leadership deficiency in the African Continent.

The motto of Dominion University is “Raising Generational Leaders” who are morally upright and passionate about their nation. It is an institution of excellence both in infrastructure as well as educational delivery. Dominion University is our humble contribution to the development of our nation (Nigeria) and our blessed continent (Africa) [ 12 ].

This first line of the above statement strengthens the advocacy for value-based education. Patil [ 14 ] discusses the importance of value-based education as an integral part of the educational curriculum. Since the youths in most societies are carried away with the vagaries of technology, coupled with exposure to violence, value-based education; must be given attention. Many undergraduates in Nigeria are confused. To raise generational leaders with strong value-based orientation would require establishing a University that would initiate and implant value-based spiritual learning to the younger generation [ 14 ]. It exposes the mind of Bishop Taiwo Adelakun that Dominion University would instill the fear of God into her students while training their souls academically.

Currently, Dominion University has two faculties: The Faculty of Computing and Applied Sciences and Faculty of Arts Social and Management Sciences. As at the time of writing this chapter, Dominion University does not have a Student Union Government. So, it does not have a formal leadership governance structure for the students. The student leadership is adhoc. Few students were selected to help manage some aspects of the campus. And departments based on recommendations. It is a unique feature of the university. Therefore, the findings are on the informal student leadership governance structure.

6. Leadership challenges among students of Dominion University

6.1 lack of support.

One of the leadership challenges among the undergraduate of Dominion University is the lack of support from the student population. According to Respondent 1, a 300 L student in the Department of Mass Communication, “we are not enjoying support and cooperation from our fellow students. It is a great challenge because it makes tasks given to us laborious [ 15 ]”. Another respondent admitted that “presently, we do not have a formal self-governing system as students. Some of us were hand-picked by the school authorities to take off some issues. But I discovered that some of our colleagues do not want to cooperate with us [ 16 ]”. Participants in the three Focus Group Discussion concur that most of the students’ leaders are not enjoying the cooperation of their fellow students. As a result, the student leaders always run to the University Management to rally their support. A respondent in 200 L remarked that “we only listen to them out of fear of being sanctioned by the University Management. They are fond of reporting those not cooperating with them [ 17 ]”. Some of the leaders confirmed utter defiance of some students to instruction. In the words of a Course Representative, “the majority of the student only comply when we threaten to report them to a higher authority [ 18 ]”.

6.2 Lack of respect

Disrespect among students to their fellow leaders is a leadership challenge. According to a 200 L student, “they see us as peers. Consequent on this perception we are not respected. It makes it difficult for us to get compliance [ 19 ]”. Rudolph et al. [ 20 ] maintained that respect is crucial for leadership. The leadership cannot properly galvanize group members when there is a lack of respect. It also validates Rudolph et al. [ 20 ] that respect is the assessment of the leadership status of the group. It is one of the factors that can engender the influence of the leaders in the exertion of authority. Respect reflects one’s evaluation of their status within the workgroup, and voice can engender respect. A member of the Sanitation Committee cited this example “I saw a fellow 200 L student throwing a bottle Coca-Cola on the floor after exhausting the liquid content. When I confronted him, he asked me what authority I have to challenge him. He said, after all, we are both in 200 L [ 21 ]. It coheres with the concept of particularized respect espoused by Rogers and Ashforth [ 22 ]. Particularized respect in leadership; is the worth a person deserves based on attributes, achievements, and behavior. Analyzing the statement indicates that there is nothing to offer for the fellow peer.

The Dean of Students Affairs made these observations “because they are peers, most of the same age bracket, the tendency is to take their leadership for granted [ 23 ]”. It corroborates Pont et al. [ 24 ] that leading other peers is a challenge because of the possibility of taking each other for granted. A 300 L student detailed that “how can they place a junior student as a leader over me and you expect me to give such a person respect? How can I be taking instructions from a lower-level student in the name of leadership? [ 25 ]”. Lack of respect for some of the students chosen to lead resonated among the participants in the three FGDs. Lecturer also acknowledged “our university is unique. Most of our students know themselves right from their high school days. Even our new 100 L students are familiar with many of our 200 L and 300 L students. It is, therefore, not out of place to find them handling their leaders with a certain level of levity [ 26 ]. Literature that were reviewed such as Sashkin [ 27 ], Siddaway et al. [ 28 ], The Neuroscience of Respectful Leadership [ 29 ], Van Quaquebeke and Felps [ 30 ], did not capture junior undergraduate students dishing orders to senior undergraduate students as a leadership challenge among undergraduates. This finding is unique to this study.

7. Wrong perception of leadership

Leadership challenges among the undergraduate students of Dominion are traceable to the wrong perception. One Hall Warden said that “they think leadership is all about the title. They do not understand that leadership is sacrifice. It validates Helms [ 31 ]. He posits that the perception of followers about their leaders is critical to leadership any outcome. The wrong perception creates the “we” versus the, “they” dichotomy. A Lecturer posits that “many of the students only look at the privileges. They forget the responsibility attached to the work of leadership [ 32 ]”. The FGDs are unanimous in their responses that the wrong perception is instrumental to the lack of cooperation. Helms [ 31 ] argues that leadership can produce positive effects; based on how they are perceived. The positive perception of leaders in the heart of those they lead can help to promote cooperation and collaboration. Where there is the wrong perception, dissonance will be the order. Helms also affirm that wrong; perception of leadership by the followers also reduces the effectiveness and accomplishments of leaders.

A female Hall Warden attested that “the result of the wrong perception is jealousy. You hear them make remarks like, if not for the higher authority that some of them are close to, can they ever smell leadership? [ 33 ]”. The dominant narrative among respondents is that some students believe that their leaders will always be subjective to those who appointed them. As a result, they seem not to be enjoying the cooperation of their fellow students. It verifies the claims of Thompson et al. [ 34 ] that negative perceptions can produce jealousy. They affirm that the presence of jealousy in the system paralyzes leadership effectiveness. Jealousy from followers leads to resistance to leadership. They believe that social loafing by followers is closely associated with; jealousy. It is also counterproductive to leadership effectiveness. Another lecturer stated that “it is the general trend among students that their leaders are stooges of management. This perception is a major challenge facing our student leaders [ 35 ]. It resonated among the three FGDs that students are careful of the presence of their student leaders in some gatherings. Students believe that leaders are informants to the university management. The researcher observed that students are suspicious when they see appointed leaders in their midst. They are also not trusted by their peers. They even change the subject of their discussion for fear of being quoted by a student before a member of the management team [ 36 ]”. According to Kutsyuruba and Walker [ 37 ], trust is critical; to the survival of leaders. Where trust; is lacking, it will affect the leaders. The wrong perception of followers can break the speed of trust. The destruction of trust can also make followers take malevolent action. It constitutes an impediment to the productivity of undergraduate leaders in the discharge of their duties.

8. Lack of leadership skills

Respondents argue that lack of leadership is a critical challenge. The 100 L FGD respondents agree that majority of their leaders lack basic leadership skills. Seven out of the ten respondents concurred leadership skills are lacking among their leaders. A Hall Representative in the male hostel admitted that “we need to be trained, in basic leadership skills; especially now that it has to do with leading our peers [ 38 ]”. Another Hall Representative in the female hostel remarked that “sometimes, the manner they communicate with their peers shows that they need training in fundamental leadership skills [ 39 ]”. One of the Lecturers mentioned that “you still find that modicum, of impatience among some leaders. Well, since they are youth, it is expected. But patience is a virtue needed for leadership. They need training in that respect [ 40 ]”. It corroborates the thesis of Gonfa [ 41 ] that the possession of leadership skills is essential to motivation, persuasion, and mobilizing followers to achieve set goals. Gonfa [ 41 ] believes that leadership is an all-inclusive word. He contends that it encompasses communication, management, developing visions, and establishing goals. Leadership skills are critical to the seamless of an organization. Leadership skills resonated in all the FGDs. In the 100 L FGD, emphasis was on communication skills. It validates Gonfa [ 41 ] that communication; is an essential tool for leadership to thrive. The 200 L FGD Respondents; are more particular about the listening skills, mobilization skills, and manner of approach. One of the respondents in the 300 L FGD stated that “some of them are acting as bosses since they are course representatives. They forget that we are peers and classmates [ 42 ]”. The majority of the respondents contend that leadership skills; can be learned. Accordingly, to enjoy cooperation, peers that are leaders; should seek to develop the needed skills to be effective in the tasks assigned to them. Gonfa [ 41 ] submits that the absence of leadership skills will make leading difficult. The dearth of leadership skills reduces the effectiveness of leaders and leads to the fall of productivity. Therefore, the lack of leadership skills can be, removed by the training of undergraduates at all levels. Gonfa [ 41 ] affirms that leadership skills development for students can produce a lasting impact.

9. Student exhibiting deviant actions

The three FGDs affirmed that the university is a common ground for all kinds of people. Some are morally defiant and non-morally defiant. The Dean of Students Affairs pointed out that “those who are bankrupt of morals try to exhibit their defiance. They are the ones who make the work and actions of the leaders more cumbersome [ 43 ]”. Through their defiant attitude, they attempt to lure other students. According to another female Hall Warden, “the morally defiant ones; that cause chaos for the leadership. They make the work of the leaders more cumbersome [ 44 ]”. This submission signifies the need for the student leader to develop the capacity to deal with such groups of students. Sherman [ 45 ] attributes to the promulgation of certain; rules and regulations by the leadership of an organization. The deviant tendencies of Dominion University students towards their leaders are traceable to their not accepting some of the extant rules and regulations. Manifestation of deviance is also linked; with the lack of knowledge. Sherman [ 45 ] believes that not knowing the rules and regulations can lead to deviance from the followers against the leaders. Also, defiance and violation of the rules can be caused by malice from the students against their leaders.

10. Power struggle between two different classes

All the respondents noted an unholy power struggle between three different classes. The researcher observed that the 300 L students believe they deserve more respect from the 200 L and 100 L students. The 300 L students think that attention is; given to the 200 L and 100 L students. So, they longer command respect from lower-level classes. The students still believed that the school authority must be involved in such matters. Equally, some respondents attested that a clash of leadership goals ultimately constitutes a challenge among students. It can also lead to a power struggle because each side wants to establish its authority. Managing such clashes for undergraduate leadership can be frustrating. Karl Marx discussed the concept of power or class struggle within an economic context. He contends that conflict is endemic because society is structured to favor certain; classes of people. However, power or class struggle, as a leadership challenge among undergraduate students is not in the thesis of Karl Marx. It is a distinctive finding in this study.

11. Conclusion

One of the basic instincts and features that man shared with other organized creatures of creation is not just the ability to live in a communal way or a community. Both man and animals have seen the need to live together communally to preserve their species; for continuous existence. In this light, the bees lived in such an organized community to the extent that a queen bee can lead and direct all other bees for protection and the necessity of sustenance. Still, in the same vein, Gorillas also live a communal life organized around an alpha male for protection and procreation. Human beings are the apex of created beings by God. They have the quality uniquely projected. As a sentient being, everyone has the ability and capability to use intelligence as they desire. However, to care for and cater to the human species, human beings need more organization than the primitive organization found in nature. To achieve this common goal, all must work together without coercion. While some are to guide and lead, others are to follow. It brings up the quest for leadership. Against this background, this paper interrogated the leadership challenges among undergraduate students of Dominion University. Leadership challenges are not limited to the corporate world. It is also evident among university graduates. However, there is a need for consistent capacity building in terms of leadership skills for undergraduate students. It is expected leadership skills acquisition can transform the plethora of challenges facing undergraduate leaders in Dominion University.

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Economic status, self-efficacy and academic achievement: the case study of undergraduate students

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This research is a descriptive study aimed at determining the effect of socio-economic status on university students academic achievement and self-efficacy, and the relationship between academic achievement and self-efficacy. The study was carried out with Phycology Students who study in Near East University in 2016–2017 school years. In this study, quantitative research method was used and research data was collected by questionnaire technique. A simple random sampling method is selected and 298 students were interviewed. SPSS 22.0 data analysis package program was used for statistical analysis of research data. Frequency analysis was used to determine the socio-economic characteristics of the students and descriptive statistics of academic achievement and general self-efficacy scale scores were given. Also, the LSD test was applied to the data analysis in order to determine percentage, arithmetic average, standard deviation, Chi squared test, t test, one-way analysis of variance and source of differences. As a result of this research, there is a statistically significant correlation between the students’ scores on the self-efficacy scale and their academic achievement. This correlation is positive, and shows that as students’ self-efficacy increases, their academic achievement also increases. Also it is seen that the academic achievement of female students is higher than that the male students.

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Engaging Undergraduate Students in Course-based Research Improved Student Learning of Course Material

• Nicole T. Appel
• Ammar Tanveer
• Sara Brownell
• Joseph N. Blattman

School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85281

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*Address correspondence to: Joseph N. Blattman ( E-mail Address: [email protected] ).

Course-based undergraduate research experiences (CUREs) offer students opportunities to engage in critical thinking and problem solving. However, quantitating the impact of incorporating research into undergraduate courses on student learning and performance has been difficult since most CUREs lack a comparable traditional course as a control. To determine how course-based research impacts student performance, we compared summative assessments of the traditional format for our upper division immunology course (2013–2016), in which students studied known immune development and responses, to the CURE format (2017–2019), in which students studied the effects of genetic mutations on immune development and responses. Because the overall class structure remained unaltered, we were able to quantitate the impact of incorporating research on student performance. Students in the CURE format class performed significantly better on quizzes, exams, and reports. There were no significant differences in academic levels, degree programs, or grade point averages, suggesting improved performance was due to increased engagement of students in research.

INTRODUCTION

Research experiences benefit undergraduate students by offering opportunities to engage in critical thinking and problem solving beyond the textbook and known experimental outcomes ( Kardash, 2000 ; Russell et al. , 2007 ; D’Arcy et al. , 2019 ). AAAS Vision and Change: A Call to Action suggested incorporating research into undergraduate education for students to appreciate the setbacks and unexpected outcomes of scientific research and to apply analytical skills and critical thinking to understanding their results (Bauerle et al. , 2011). Skills developed during undergraduate research experiences (UREs), such as teamwork, critical thinking, and oral and written communication, help prepare students for the workforce independent of whether they stay in a Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) field ( McClure-Brenchley et al. , 2020 ). Participating in undergraduate research is also associated with increased retention and likelihood of pursuing scientific research as a career ( Mastronardi et al. , 2021 ). Course-based undergraduate research experiences (CURE) provide students the opportunities to obtain scientific process skills while also having a greater outreach compared with one-on-one undergraduate research experiences ( Bangera and Brownell, 2014 ; Burmeister et al. , 2021 ). CURE classes are defined as integrating scientific practices, discovery, collaboration, and iteration with broadly relevant work. All five criteria must be met for a class to be a CURE, although every CURE may cover each criterion in varying degrees ( Auchincloss et al. , 2014 ).

Various surveys for undergraduate research experiences are available for measuring psychological and knowledge-based gains of participating in a CURE class. Using these tools, research has shown several benefits to transitioning to a CURE class. Biology Intensive Orientation Summer (BIOS) is a CURE that originated in China to help undergraduate students gain research skills and graduate students gain mentor skills. The CURE gave students the confidence and skills to pursue mentor based UREs, which was a graduation requirement ( Fendos et al. , 2022 ). Another study found that, after participating in a CURE for a year, students perceived gains in scientific literacy, data collection, presenting results via oral and written communication, and maintaining a lab notebook ( Peteroy-Kelly et al. , 2017 ). Other CUREs, such as the biochemistry authentic scientific inquiry laboratory (BASIL) CURE, measured student reported gains in lab skills, aka anticipated learning outcomes or course-based undergraduate research abilities. Students were asked about their knowledge, experience, and confidence in the seven anticipated learning outcomes in pretests and posttests and reported gains in all seven areas ( Irby et al. , 2020 ). Measuring gains in content knowledge is rarer, but a study by Wolkow et al. followed up with students 1 and 3 years after taking an introductory biology class to which students were randomly assigned to either a CURE or traditional lab class ( Wolkow et al. , 2014 ; Wolkow et al. , 2019 ). One year after the course, students in the CURE lab reported greater psychological gains, such as enjoying the class and considering a research career, and performed better on an assessment used to measure gains on topics covered in the CURE lab. The knowledge gains for general introductory biology were comparable between groups ( Wolkow et al. , 2014 ). By senior year, perceived gains were no longer different between those who were in the CURE and traditional lab classes as freshmen, and the knowledge gains for general introductory biology were comparable, too. However, the targeted knowledge gains of what was covered in the lab classes remained significantly higher in the CURE group ( Wolkow et al. , 2019 ).

In many CUREs, students develop their own questions and experiments to fulfill the five criteria of integrating scientific practices, discovery, collaboration, and iteration with broadly relevant work. Although students report positive outcomes when asked to compare CUREs with previous traditional labs they have taken, obtaining empirical, measurable benefits for students to engage in undergraduate research is difficult when questions and experiments vary by semester or even by lab group ( Linn et al. , 2015 ). In collaboration with Dr. Brownell, we agreed members from her lab could interview our students to determine whether any differences in cognitive and emotional ownership existed between the two class formats and, if so, whether that impacted student perceptions on collaboration, iteration, or discovery/relevance. The interviews were performed in 2016 (traditional), 2017 (CURE), and 2018 (CURE). Based on that collaboration, we learned that changing our Experimental Immunology class to a CURE format did not significantly impact collaboration or iteration, but the CURE format students perceived their data were novel and relevant outside of class. CURE format students also expressed increased cognitive and emotional ownership compared with traditional format students ( Cooper et al. , 2019 ). To ease the transition from a traditional format to the CURE format, the only change made between the formats was that the CURE students researched how a genetic change impacted the immune response alongside the control experiments by comparing the known immune responses of wild-type (WT) mice to previously uncharacterized genetically modified mice. The experiments and assessments were unchanged between class formats. We realized retrospectively that we were in a unique position to empirically measure whether and how incorporating research impacted students and therefore fulfill the gap in knowledge detailed by Linn et al. (2015) . We knew our students had increased cognitive and emotional ownership when research was incorporated into the course ( Cooper et al. , 2019 ), and ownership has been linked to improved student performance ( Martínez et al. , 2019 ). Therefore, the first question we asked was whether incorporating research into the course resulted in improved overall performance? This question was examined using three main variables: overall course performance; sets of quizzes, reports, and exams; and individual assessment items. While we could not quantitate the amount of literature read or scientific skills acquired, we were able to compare the scores of the direct summative assessments intended to measure student learning. In this lab course, we had direct summative assessments in the form of lab reports, quizzes, and two exams. During the semester, we also assessed participation and lab notebooks to encourage students to come prepared to perform experiments and to understand the material beforehand, but we did not use participation or notebook grades to measure how well students learned the course material since those assessments were tools to ensure students came to class knowing the procedures and actively participated. Therefore, we compared the total results from direct summative assessments (lab report, quiz, and exam grades) to determine whether incorporating research into a lab class resulted in any impact on student learning. The quizzes and exams remained identical between the two class formats, which provided another control variable when comparing class formats. Because the Teaching Assistants (TAs) grading the assessments did not know scores would be compared by the professor after the transition to a CURE format, we argue the assessments were graded without bias for CURE or traditional formats. Because students were not told beforehand whether the class was traditional or CURE format, the “volunteer effect” also did not impact our findings ( Brownell et al. , 2013 ). In a second experimental question, we asked whether additional factors influenced course performance or were distinct between traditional versus CURE formats, including grade point average (GPA), academic major, academic year, grading trends, and racial/ethnic or gender diversity.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This study was conducted with an approved Institutional Review Board protocol (#4249) from Arizona State University.

Traditional Class Format

The class was divided into five sections each consisting of two or three laboratory exercises. The five sections were anatomy and cells of the immune system (labs 2–3), innate immunity (labs 4–6), adaptive immune system development (labs 7–8), acute adaptive immune response (labs 10–12), and immune memory and protection (labs 13–15). All experiments and protocols followed the lab manual “The Immune System: An Experimental Approach” ( Blattman et al. , 2016 ). The purpose of each lab could be copied from the lab manual. In other words, the traditional lab class format was prescriptive or “cookbook.” While students wrote individual hypotheses, the findings were not novel and no outside literature was needed to support the hypothesis; all necessary information to form a hypothesis was in the lab manual. All lab experiments were performed using immune cells from recently killed WT Bl6 mice (IACUC 19-1684T). The class structure was to start with a quiz, review the quiz, answer students’ questions regarding immunology and the day’s lab exercises, and then let the students perform the experiments and, when applicable, gather data the same day. Notebooks were signed at the end of class. Students were encouraged to have everything written in their notebooks and review class material before class started.

CURE Class Format

To transition to a CURE format, students studied mice with a genetic mutation that had not been studied in immunology thereby generating novel data. By collaborating with other laboratories within Arizona State University, students studied what effect knocking out Mohawk (2017, Alan Rawls), having a Raf1L613V mutation (2018, Jason Newborn), or knocking out Z-DNA-binding protein 1 (2019, Bertram Jacobs) had on the immune response. The five areas of immunology studied, the lab manual, and protocols remained unchanged between traditional and CURE formats. The purpose of each CURE lab shifted to understanding how the immune response of a genetically modified mouse differed from the WT mouse. CURE students were required to read outside literature before class started to generate a novel hypothesis. They were instructed to hypothesize how the immune response would differ (better, worse, or no change) between mice and provide their own reasoning as to why. Other than encouraging students to find publications on pubmed, instructors did not help students generate hypotheses. Before experiments started, students discussed their hypotheses in small groups before sharing their different hypotheses with the class. Instructors encouraged students to share their different hypotheses by asking, “Did anyone think the immune response would be better in the knock out mouse? Why? Who thought there’d be no change? Why?” and finally saying, “All these hypotheses are valid. We don’t know the answer yet because the experiment has never been done before.” The class structure was to start with the quiz, review the quiz, answer immunology questions, discuss hypotheses and reasoning, answer questions related to lab exercise, let the students perform the experiments and, when applicable, gather data the same day. Notebooks were signed at the end of class. Because there was no time to generate a hypothesis during class, students were required to read the course material and apply it to the genetic mutation before coming to class.

At the beginning of every lab, students took a quiz on the immunology on which the lab was based and the experiment itself. The first and last quizzes were omitted because the first quiz was used to show students how the class would flow throughout the semester and therefore did not count toward the final grade and the last quiz was a practical to determine student ability to analyze flow cytometry data.

Before class, both teaching methods required students to read the lab material, write the purpose, question, hypothesis, and procedures for the day’s lab in their notebooks, and take a quiz at the beginning of class. Students used the same book with the same optional practice questions and took the same quizzes. Although both class formats required students to come to class prepared, the CURE teaching method enforced that requirement because incorporating real scientific research into the class required CURE students to develop a novel hypothesis on how altering the gene of interest would impact the immune response. Due to time constraints, all reading for generating their novel hypothesis needed to happen before the class started. Immediately after reviewing the quiz, CURE students discussed their hypotheses in their groups for 2 minutes prior to sharing with the class via random call. To receive a notebook signature for the day’s lab, CURE students needed to have citations for their hypotheses. Students were expected to have hypotheses with citations before the start of class beginning with the second lab quiz.

Students wrote lab reports after the first four class sections. The fifth lab report was not included in this analysis since students taking the class 2013–2015 were not told to write a fifth report, and students in 2016–2019 could write the fifth report to replace the lowest report grade. Therefore, the significant difference between report grades was calculated based on reports 1 through 4 without replacing any scores since report 5 was omitted. Regardless of class format, students followed the same report rubric. Each report was worth 50 points, and the points were Introduction-7, Methods-5, Results-12, Discussion-15, References-5, Grammar-2, Legends/captions-2, and Formatting-2. In the introduction, students were expected to provide relevant information, purpose of the experiments, questions answered, and hypotheses. The CURE students not only provided the relevant immunology background for the report but also read additional literature for relevant background information regarding the gene of interest. This background reading (which took place before class and therefore before the quiz) then needed to provide a clear link to the hypothesis. Students were told the hypothesis should answer whether they expected the immune response would be greater, the same, or less than the WT mouse and why. The methods remained unchanged other than the CURE students had one additional sample to run due to also analyzing the immune response from the genetically modified mouse. For results, students in both class formats analyzed immune organ cell counts, flow cytometry data, ELISA results, and cytotoxicity data for their reports. However, students taking the CURE format had additional samples and needed to compare WT results with the genetically altered mouse. While the analysis itself was similar given the rubric (figures, description/summary, how data were obtained, and identifying controls in the experiments), CURE students analyzed two sets of data, learned how to prevent bias between samples, and then compared/contrasted the data in the discussion. In the discussion, both class formats read outside literature and discussed the impact of the data. Both formats analyzed WT data and determined whether the data obtained fit within expected values. For the CURE students, the WT data served as a control that then told them whether they correctly performed the experiment. Therefore, if the WT values fit the expected norm, then the data from the genetically altered mouse, which used the same methods and reagents, could be believed. Students then read further literature to try to understand the reasoning behind the results from the genetically altered mouse and then showed how their research regarding the gene of interest had impact outside of class. Both class formats discussed the impact of the established immunology and why the immunology was important to study (Supplemental Table S1).

The class had two exams: the open book take-home midterm was given as a hard copy before spring break and due when classes resumed and the closed book in-class final.

The students followed the same rubric for lab reports (Supplemental Table S1) and had the same quizzes and exams. Quiz and exam questions consisted of multiple choice, fill in the blank, drawing, short answer, identify cells or organs, and math. Short answer and drawing questions could have resulted in variance in TA grading. However, any variance was mitigated by reviewing all quiz answers in class and exam answers when requested. The professor, who did not change between formats, was present for classes and answered questions regarding which short answers were or were not acceptable and whether partial credit would be granted. Drawings were also reviewed in class using either a whiteboard or TV screens depending on class size.

If the increase in grades in the CURE format were due to students obtaining copies of previous quizzes, then we would expect quiz grades to have started rising during the 4 years the traditional format was taught. The midterm exam was always an open book take home exam given before students left for spring break. The final exam was a closed book, in class exam for both class formats and had the same questions and available number of points.

For both formats, TAs encouraged study practices for the final exam. In the traditional class, students were allowed a notecard during the final. In the CURE format, students had an in-class quiz-like review session 2 days before the final. While the TAs provided different study aids, students still studied on their own. In other words, the students in the traditional class could have still quizzed themselves while students in the CURE class were observed taking notes during the review session.

Regarding lab reports, different TAs graded the lab reports depending on the year. However, the same rubric was followed for grading, and the available number of points for each report remained consistent within the class format.

Finally, the quality of education remained consistent across the different class formats. The same professor was responsible for the class even though the TA teaching the class changed. In both formats, the class TAs were recognized for quality teaching. The traditional format was taught by a TA who was student-nominated and awarded ASU’s Teacher of the Year. The CURE format was taught by a TA who was self-nominated and awarded GPSA’s Teaching Excellence Award.

Student Demographics

GPA, degree program, and academic level were all analyzed in the results section as described below. The class did not have any prerequisites to enroll and was not required by any degree program at Arizona State University. In other words, the likelihood of students enrolling in Experimental Immunology remained consistent between class formats. A lecture class (MIC 420: Basic Immunology) was offered all the years that Experimental Immunology was taught. However, the lecture class was not required, and both the traditional and CURE class formats had a mixture of students who had and had not taken the lecture. Students did not elect to enroll in a CURE or traditional class and were not told prior to enrollment that the class format had changed to a CURE. Other demographics, including prior research experience, were assessed previously and not found to be significantly different between class formats ( Cooper et al. , 2019 ).

Statistical Analysis

Scores from quizzes, reports, and exams were pulled from 2013 to 2019 and analyzed for any differences via GraphPad Prism unpaired t tests. Correction from multiple t tests was done using false discovery rate determined by two-stage step-up (Benjamini, Krieger, and Yekutieli). GPA was also analyzed via unpaired t tests to determine significance.

The Shannon–Wiener diversity index, Chi-squared, and Fisher t test were used to determine level of diversity for degree program, academic level, race, and gender. The Shannon–Wiener diversity index is a way to measure diversity within a population ( Shannon, 1948 ). A t test was used to compare results from the Shannon–Wiener diversity index ( Hutcheson, 1970 ). Further analysis for degree program, academic level, and race used Chi-squared. Significant differences in gender were determined using the Fisher t test.

GraphPad Prism’s multiple regression analysis was used to determine the impact of the predictor variables GPA, class format (0-Traditional, 1-Cure), and academic level on the outcome variable (overall points earned). Further analysis studied the predictor variables on points earned on quizzes, reports, and exams separately.

Scores from quizzes 2013–2016 were analyzed via one-way ANOVA in GraphPad Prism.

Students in CURE Class Averaged ∼5% Higher than Students Taught via Traditional Method

To determine whether students learned more course material in the CURE format, we compared overall course grades and found that students in the CURE class performed better overall with a class average of 80% compared with students in the traditional format course who averaged 75% ( p < 0.0001) ( Figure 1A ). The aggregate semester grade was calculated from student quizzes (79% vs. 71%, p < 0.0001) ( Figure 1B ), lab reports (84% vs. 78%, p < 0.0001) ( Figure 1C ), and exams (82% vs. 77%, p < 0.01) ( Figure 1D ). On all three assessments, CURE format students had significantly improved performance, which suggests incorporating research into the immunology laboratory class resulted in improved understanding and application of the course material.

FIGURE 1. Changing class format to a CURE improved student performance. (A) Students enrolled in the CURE class format demonstrated improved mastery of course material compared with those in the traditional class format based on improved scores in quizzes, lab reports, and exams. (B) Quizzes were given at the beginning of class before the instructor/TA reviewed the material and experimental setup. Based on quiz scores, CURE students demonstrated increased understanding of and preparedness for class. (C) Lab reports assessed scientific writing and ability to analyze and interpret data. Students enrolled in the CURE format performed better overall on reports. (D) Students engaged in research scored higher on exams indicating improved mastery of course material. CURE students n = 139, traditional students n = 119; **** p < 0.0001, ** p < 0.01; unpaired t test was used to test statistical significance with false discovery rate determined by two-stage step-up (Benjamini, Krieger, and Yekutieli).

Changing Class Format to a CURE Improved Majority of Quiz Scores

We used quizzes to test student preparedness for class and understanding of important background information each laboratory period. CURE students achieved significantly higher scores on seven out of 13 quizzes ( Figure 2 ). Early in the semester, the CURE teaching method resulted in students performing significantly better on the second quiz (88% vs. 80%, p < 0.01). The CURE teaching method resulted in continued improved performance when viral infection was mimicked in quiz 5 by studying the innate immune response to poly(I:C) (61% vs. 51%, p < 0.01) and when lymphocyte development was studied in quiz 7 (88% vs. 78%, p < 0.0001) and quiz 8 (88% vs. 81%. p < 0.01). Later in the semester, lymphocyte response to virus was studied, specifically how T cells respond to viral infections. The difference in quiz scores between teaching methods then often exceeded 15% such as in quizzes 10 (76% vs. 58%, p < 0.0001), 11 (82% vs. 61%, p < 0.0001), and 14 (83% vs. 66%, p < 0.0001). Scores for quizzes 12 and 13 were not significantly different between teaching methods (70% vs. 62% and 80% vs. 75%, respectively). When the focus was on learning a new technique instead of forming a new hypothesis, such as quiz 6 (79% vs. 80%) and quiz 9 (77% vs. 75%), no significant difference in scores was noticed. Scores for quizzes 3 and 4 scores were also not significantly different between teaching methods (87% vs. 82% and 67% vs. 71%, respectively). Lab 3 studied cells of the immune system and reviewed fundamentals for flow cytometry, which the class used to analyze data. Lab 4 studied oxidative burst, which occurs when leukocytes encounter a pathogen. Overall, seven of the 13 quizzes were significantly improved for CURE format versus traditional format. Of the six quizzes that were not significantly improved, two involved learning a technique instead of generating a hypothesis before obtaining novel results.

FIGURE 2. Incorporating research into the course resulted in improved quiz scores. Of the quizzes analyzed, students engaged in research earned higher scores in seven of the 13 quizzes. Two of the four quizzes in which there was no significant difference did not have novel data in the lab classes for those quizzes. Unfilled bars represent the traditional format, and filled bars represent the CURE format. CURE students n = 139, traditional students n = 119; **** p < 0.0001, ** p < 0.01, * p < 0.05, ns = not significant; unpaired t test was used to test statistical significance with false discovery rate determined by two-stage step-up (Benjamini, Krieger, and Yekutieli).

Incorporating Scientific Research Resulted in Improved Performance on Reports

While quizzes demonstrated student preparedness for class, we used laboratory reports to assess student analytical skills for interpreting data, as well as critical thinking about how their work applied to current research outside the class. The rubric for grading reports was unchanged between class formats. We found significantly improved scores for all four analyzed laboratory reports from CURE format students compared with scores from traditional format students. As with quizzes, incorporating research into the class benefitted students from the beginning. The CURE format resulted in students earning 6% higher on the first report (74% vs. 68%, p < 0.01). Students appeared to incorporate feedback from the first report regardless of class format given the second report was one letter grade higher for both sets of students. However, the benefit of incorporating research early resulted in the CURE class still scoring 8% higher (87% vs. 79%, p < 0.0001). The third report (89% vs. 83%, p < 0.0001) and fourth report (87% vs. 84%, p < 0.05) also demonstrated improved scientific writing when research was incorporated ( Figure 3 ).

FIGURE 3. Students demonstrated better scientific writing when they produced and analyzed novel data. Lab reports assessed analytical skills and data interpretation and required students to look at contemporary literature to understand how their work was applicable outside class. CURE students were told from the beginning of the semester their work was novel. The same rubric was used for both class formats in which over half the grade came from the results and discussion sections. CURE students scored higher on all analyzed reports. Unfilled bars represent the traditional format, and filled bars represent the CURE format. CURE students n = 139, traditional students n = 119; **** p < 0.0001, ** p < 0.01, * p < 0.05; unpaired t test was used to test statistical significance with false discovery rate determined by two-stage step-up (Benjamini, Krieger, and Yekutieli).

Midterm, but not Final, Exam Scores Improved in CURE Format

Two exams were given to assess student mastery of the course material. A midterm exam assessed student understanding of labs 1–9, and a final exam covered material from labs 10 to 15. The questions and format were the same for exams for the traditional and CURE format courses. Again, students in the CURE format class performed significantly better on the midterm exam compared with students from the traditional format course (88% vs. 83%, p < 0.0001). However, student performance on the final exam did not differ significantly between traditional and CURE format courses (75% vs. 73%) ( Figure 4 ).

FIGURE 4. CURE students scored higher on the midterm but not the final. The exams tested student understanding of the course material; no questions were modified to incorporate research material. All students were provided with the same take-home, open-book midterm to be completed in the same timeframe. Although course-based research was not incorporated into the exam itself, CURE students scored higher on the midterm. The final exam was administered in class after all experiments were completed. CURE students and traditional students performed equally on the final. Unfilled bars represent the traditional format, and filled bars represent the CURE format. CURE students n = 139, traditional students n = 119; **** p < 0.0001, ns = not significant; unpaired t test was used to test statistical significance with false discovery rate determined by two-stage step-up (Benjamini, Krieger, and Yekutieli).

Student Demographics Remained Consistent Between Formats

The improved performance on quizzes, exams, and lab reports in the CURE format course compared with the traditional format course, despite no other differences in format or assessments, suggests incorporating research into a laboratory course increases student mastery. However, other factors including student demographics could also result in this change. To determine whether the student population changed, data on students’ overall academic GPAs, degree programs, and academic levels were analyzed. No significant difference was observed across GPA ( p = 0.07) ( Figure 5C ), degree program ( p = 0.6) ( Figure 5A ), or academic level ( p = 0.4) ( Figure 5B ). Therefore, the students who took the traditional class format were equally capable of mastering the course material as students who took the CURE class format. The improved performance observed in the CURE format was due to incorporating research into the teaching method.

FIGURE 5. Student demographics were unchanged between traditional and CURE formats. (A) Students enrolled in either the traditional or CURE format participated in similar degree programs. CURE students n = 139, traditional students n = 119; Shannon Diversity test followed by an unpaired t test was used to test statistical significance in differences between formats. (B) Both the traditional and CURE formats consisted mostly of seniors. No significant difference was observed in student academic level between the different formats. CURE students n = 139, traditional students n = 119; Shannon Diversity test followed by an unpaired t test was used to test statistical significance in differences between formats. (C) No significant difference was found in student GPAs between the class formats. CURE students n = 139, traditional students n = 119; ns = not significant; an unpaired t test was used to test statistical significance .

Multiple Linear Regression Analysis Indicates the Teaching Intervention Improved Student Scores

Multiple linear regression (MLR) controls for other variables that impact student performance and is therefore a reliable method for determining whether a teaching intervention, such as incorporating research, impacted student performance and learning or whether the change in performance was due to student-intrinsic factors ( Theobald and Freeman, 2014 ). In setting up the MLR analysis, we chose student GPA, class format, and academic level as the predictor, or control, variables. The outcome variable was the total number of points earned in the class. GPA represented overall academic performance. Academic level helped measure preparedness of previous coursework since more senior students would likely have taken more life science classes to prepare them for an upper division immunology course. Class format represented the teaching intervention, which was incorporating research. MLR analysis showed how well incorporating research impacted student performance ( p = 0.0004) in the class when the predictor variables were controlled ( Table 1 ). GPA also served as a good indicator of well a student would do in the class ( p < 0.0001), but academic level had no impact on how well students performed in class. Individual analyses were performed for quizzes, reports, and exams with similar findings (Supplemental Tables S2–S4).

Improved Scores were Due to Changing the Teaching Format without Changing Assessments

If the increase in grades in the CURE format were due to students obtaining copies of previous assessments, especially quizzes, then we hypothesized that we would see significant increases in quiz grades prior to changing class formats. We analyzed quiz averages across the 4 years the traditional lab was taught, 2013–2016. While there was an improvement between 2013 and 2014 (Supplemental Figure S1), no further improvement was noted across the 4 years. 2013 was the first year this course was taught. Nonetheless, we reanalyzed the overall scores for quizzes, reports, and exams to determine whether 2013 falsely lowered the scores from the traditional class format. All three assessment areas remained significant between class formats when the scores from the first ever class were omitted (Supplemental Figure S2).

Assessing Differences in TA Grading Showed No Significance Difference between Formats

The traditional format had four graders over the course of 4 years (two TAs and two assistant TAs). The CURE format had two graders over the course of 3 years (two TAs). The class professor, who was consistent across formats, also graded occasionally. Although unlikely that the clear divide in grades across class formats was due to grading variances since there were seven total graders for the class, we sought to determine whether differences in scores were due to grading. We therefore analyzed the coefficient of variance (%CV) within samples and compared the two class formats. Any %CV due to student-intrinsic factors would be similar between teaching methods because student demographics were comparable between class formats. If %CV were significantly different between formats, then other factors, including differences in TA grading, would likely be responsible. The %CV for quizzes, reports, and exams were not significant between class formats ( p = 0.0671, 0.3162, and 0.8858, respectively) ( Figure 6 ), which suggests that the grading rigor was comparable between class formats.

FIGURE 6. Grading practices were comparable between traditional and CURE formats. (A) The 13 quizzes were analyzed for %CV to determine intravariability in grading in both traditional and CURE formats. The %CVs were then analyzed via unpaired t test. No significant difference in intravariability was found between class formats. (B) The four reports were analyzed for %CV to determine intravariability in grading in both traditional and CURE formats. The %CVs were then analyzed via unpaired t test. No significant difference in intravariability was found between class formats. (C) The two exams were analyzed for %CV to determine intravariability in grading in both traditional and CURE formats. The %CVs were then analyzed via unpaired t test. No significant difference in intravariability was found between class formats.

Experimental Immunology Taught a Diverse Student Population

CUREs are known to include more students in research and have a broader outreach than the traditional one-on-one mentoring method ( Bangera and Brownell, 2014 ; Burmeister et al. , 2021 ). Both the traditional and CURE class formats rated high on the Shannon–Wiener diversity index with richness scores of 7 and 11, respectively. There was no significant difference between class diversity as calculated via Shannon–Wiener diversity index ( p = 0.2) or Chi-squared test ( p = 0.3255) ( Figure 7A ). Both the traditional and CURE class formats had over 50% female students, and the ratio of female to male students was not significantly different between class formats as calculated via Shannon–Wiener diversity index ( p = 0.2) or Fisher’s exact test ( p = 0.1298) ( Figure 7B ). Overall, the Experimental Immunology class serves a diverse group of students. By changing the class format to incorporate research, we included the diverse student population we serve in critical thinking and problem solving.

FIGURE 7. Traditional and CURE formats served equally diverse student populations. (A) Students enrolled in the course came from diverse racial backgrounds, several of which are underrepresented in science. CURE students n = 139, traditional students n = 119; Shannon diversity test followed by an unpaired t test was used to test statistical significance in differences between formats. Chi-squared test was also tested. No significant difference was observed between class formats. (B) More women than men enrolled in Experimental Immunology. CURE students n = 139, traditional students n = 119; Shannon diversity test followed by an unpaired t test was used to test statistical significance in differences between formats. Fisher’s exact test was also used. No significant difference was observed between class formats.

While incorporating research into existing laboratory courses benefits students by encouraging critical thinking, problem solving, and reading current literature to show how their work is novel and applicable outside class, quantitating the impact of integrating research on student mastery of the course material has been difficult ( Linn et al. , 2015 ). We changed the format of an upper division immunology lab course into a CURE class by having students study the immune response of previously uncharacterized genetically altered mice compared with the known response of WT mice. The class structure, such as the experiments performed, lab manual used, and assessments, remained unchanged between formats thereby allowing us to compare the effect incorporating research has on student performance in the class. We realized retroactively that we were therefore in a unique position to determine whether incorporating research improved student learning of the original course material as evidenced by improved scores.

Overall, we found incorporating research into the class resulted in students performing significantly better in all assessment areas. The overall difference in student performance was not surprising since every assessment showed that incorporating research improved student performance. The difference in quiz scores could be due to the nature of the hypotheses required for both classes. Because students studied known outcomes in the traditional class format, the lab manual often provided enough information for students to know what to expect and why. However, the lab manual did not detail any genetic mutations. While CURE students would have read the same immunology background from the lab manual, they had the additional responsibility to apply what they learned to whether a genetic mutation would impact the immune system and, if so, how. Encouraging students to apply their knowledge before taking any assessment likely resulted in improved learning of the course material and therefore higher quiz scores ( Freeman et al. , 2014 ).

Incorporating research improved students’ scientific writing as evidenced by improved lab report scores. Writing about real scientific results in the results and discussion sections, which are responsible for over half the lab report grade, likely made scientific writing more approachable. For example, the discussion section required students to compare their results with outside literature and explain why their results did or did not agree with current literature. The CURE teaching method required students to start reading outside literature before writing the report. Therefore, CURE students had an advantage regarding which literature sources to cite for the discussion because they already read multiple sources to formulate a hypothesis. The increased ownership and engagement in the class ( Cooper et al. , 2019 ) may have also resulted in increased scores as they had to write why their novel results were important outside of class ( Conley and French, 2014 ; Cannata et al. , 2019 ; Martínez et al. , 2019 ). The traditional teaching format encouraged outside reading before writing the report but did not require it. The results were not novel for the traditional teaching method, and therefore the impact of what was studied focused less on their results and more on how the experiments studied are still used in current research.

The significant difference in exam scores resulted from the CURE teaching method improving student scores by 5% on the midterm exam. Because the midterm exam was an open book take home exam completed over spring break, students in both class formats had equal access to the lab manual and previous quizzes to do equally well on the exam. Therefore, the difference in scores was likely due to student motivation to devote the time to do well on the exam ( Dweck, 1986 ) possibly due to increased project ownership ( Cannata et al. , 2017 ). The midterm also correlated with the increased peak in quiz performance suggesting that students in the CURE format exhibited higher levels of engagement immediately after spring break.

The difference in scores began to decline when quizzes and assignments for the class overlapped with projects necessary for students to graduate, such as capstone and honors thesis projects. If students experienced equal levels of burnout or had multiple assignments due around the time the final was taken, then student engagement in the class would be comparable between class formats and therefore explain why the scores on the final exam were not significantly different.

Active learning encourages students to take ownership of their education by actively participating in what they learn. By changing the lab format to a CURE class, students received guidance on how to look up and interpret journal articles. Once empowered in ways to educate themselves and look up information beyond what was provided in the course materials, the improved scores suggest students truly engaged in the class and took ownership of their projects and their education. Teaching the students scientific processes, such as graphing, data analysis, experimental design, scientific writing, and science communication, before students enrolled in introductory science classes improved content learning when students later enrolled in introductory biology classes despite minimal differences in student GPA/SAT scores ( Dirks and Cunningham, 2006 ). CUREs teach scientific processes alongside class material ( Auchincloss et al. , 2014 ). Our work supports that CUREs are an effective way to improve undergraduate education by engaging more students in scientific research. We showed transitioning to a CURE format resulted in a similar improvement in scores compared with teaching scientific processes separately. This further shows the CURE format enhanced student learning of course material rather than distracted from it, which is a concern raised when educators express reasons for not integrating more active learning in their courses ( Kim et al. , 2018 ; Shadle et al. , 2017 ; Ul-Huda et al. , 2018 ).

One limitation of this study is that different TAs were present and responsibilities, such as grading, shifted as TAs shifted. To mitigate variation, answers were reviewed in class whenever possible (always for quizzes, upon request for exams). Regarding quizzes, since all those answers were approved by the professor who was present for both class formats, CURE students performed better than traditional students in seven of the 13 quizzes, or seven of the 11 quizzes that involved applying their knowledge to a genetic mutation. A subset of assessments was unavailable to regrade to verify the impact of adding research because assessments were handed back to students. Nonetheless, most questions did not have multiple correct answers. The only questions that could have different points awarded based on TA leniency were drawings and short answers. To understand whether there were any significant differences, we compared %CV between formats. We showed through multiple analyses (MLR, Chi-squared, diversity index, and previous work from Cooper et al. (2019) ) that student demographics were not responsible for the difference in scores. Any %CV related to student ability would remain consistent between formats. We reasoned that a change in %CV would therefore be due to other variables, such as TA grading leniency. Our data showed that %CV was not different between class formats. Therefore, we do not believe having different graders significantly impacted the scores because no variance was noted within the class formats themselves.

We also analyzed whether academic dishonesty in the form of obtaining quizzes from prior years could have resulted in improved scores. While the first year the class was taught did have lower scores compared with subsequent semesters, no further improvement occurred. The improvement from 2013 to 2014 likely resulted from having an experienced professor and experienced TAs.

Another limitation of this study is we had no information on differences in family support and/or responsibilities (parents, spouse, children), socioeconomics such as whether the students were working to support themselves or were supported by family, and other personal factors that could affect student performance in the class ( Mushtaq and Khan, 2012 ). Nonetheless, previous studies showed prior test scores, course knowledge, and experience had the highest correlations to student performance when compared with other factors such as learning/teaching styles, gender, and family stress ( Van Lanen et al. , 2000 ; Clark and Latshaw, 2012 ; Mushtaq and Khan, 2012 ). Because no significant difference was noted in GPA, degree program, or academic level between the two formats, the improved scores likely resulted from the teaching method and not the students. This was further supported via MLR analysis in which class format was found to contribute to student performance when all other variables, including GPA, were controlled. GPA was accessed when most of the students had graduated Arizona State University, which means the GPA analyzed was likely the students’ final GPAs or close to their final GPAs. We recognize that our students had both visible and invisible diversities that were not disclosed in interviews or through demographic information. Therefore, measuring to what extent transitioning the class format to a CURE class impacted each demographic is outside the scope of this study. Nonetheless, we did note that students in the CURE class performed better overall. We hope this information encourages educators to include active learning, particularly course-based research, in their classes and universities to offer rewards and incentives for educators to update courses as needed to improve student engagement and thereby improve student mastery of course material.

Overall, we showed incorporating research into an upper division lab improved student learning and mastery of course material. Changing the class to a CURE format resulted in students experiencing increased project ownership, which was likely associated with increased engagement in the course and ownership of their education which then translated to improved scores on assessments. We were able to show this because the overall class structure and assessments remained unaltered between the traditional and CURE class formats; the only change was students studied how a previously uncharacterized gene impacted immune system development, response, and memory. Over the course of 3 years, 139 students from diverse backgrounds, some of which are underrepresented in science, participated in scientific research through this class, which supports that CUREs can engage large numbers of diverse students in science ( Auchincloss et al. , 2014 ).

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We would like to thank all the labs that collaborated with Experimental Immunology to provide genetically modified mice. While the labs were already breeding mice for their own research, we are grateful for the work they put in to breed additional mice for this class. Special thanks to Cherie Alissa Lynch (2017), Michael Holter (2018), and Karen Kibler (2019) for helping make the CURE class possible. Student fees for Arizona State University’s MIC 421 Experimental Immunology class 435 were used to fund the class experiments.

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Submitted: 23 May 2022 Revised: 9 January 2024 Accepted: 22 July 2024

© 2024 N. T. Appel et al. CBE—Life Sciences Education © 2024 The American Society for Cell Biology. This article is distributed by The American Society for Cell Biology under license from the author(s). It is available to the public under an Attribution–Noncommercial–Share Alike 3.0 Unported Creative Commons License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0).

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Overcoming barriers to persistence: a single-case study of student veterans in higher education.

Janet G. Hupel , Liberty University Follow

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David Vacchi

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Hupel, Janet G., "Overcoming Barriers to Persistence: A Single-Case Study of Student Veterans in Higher Education" (2024). Doctoral Dissertations and Projects . 5988. https://digitalcommons.liberty.edu/doctoral/5988

The purpose of this intrinsic case study is to understand the lived experiences of student veterans as they overcome barriers to persistence at a small, faith-based institution of higher education in the South. The theory guiding this study is Pascarella’s student-faculty integration model, as it explains the relationship between the student veterans’ unique background characteristics and other educational experiences to the degree of integration with faculty on campus and, ultimately, their persistence in higher education. What are the experiences of student veterans as they overcome barriers to persistence in higher education? The setting for the study is a small, faith-based private university in the south. The sample will be 10-15 student veterans, either undergraduate or graduate, who currently attend the institution. Data will be collected using semi-structured interviews, observations, and document review. Interviews will be recorded and transcribed, and then coded. The codes will be combined into themes. Based on the themes that are uncovered, the researcher will take the concern to the respective university department for a response.

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