psychology academic essays

How to Write a Psychology Essay

Saul McLeod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul McLeod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

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Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

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Before you write your essay, it’s important to analyse the task and understand exactly what the essay question is asking. Your lecturer may give you some advice – pay attention to this as it will help you plan your answer.

Next conduct preliminary reading based on your lecture notes. At this stage, it’s not crucial to have a robust understanding of key theories or studies, but you should at least have a general “gist” of the literature.

After reading, plan a response to the task. This plan could be in the form of a mind map, a summary table, or by writing a core statement (which encompasses the entire argument of your essay in just a few sentences).

After writing your plan, conduct supplementary reading, refine your plan, and make it more detailed.

It is tempting to skip these preliminary steps and write the first draft while reading at the same time. However, reading and planning will make the essay writing process easier, quicker, and ensure a higher quality essay is produced.

Components of a Good Essay

Now, let us look at what constitutes a good essay in psychology. There are a number of important features.

• Global Structure – structure the material to allow for a logical sequence of ideas. Each paragraph / statement should follow sensibly from its predecessor. The essay should “flow”. The introduction, main body and conclusion should all be linked.
• Each paragraph should comprise a main theme, which is illustrated and developed through a number of points (supported by evidence).
• Knowledge and Understanding – recognize, recall, and show understanding of a range of scientific material that accurately reflects the main theoretical perspectives.
• Critical Evaluation – arguments should be supported by appropriate evidence and/or theory from the literature. Evidence of independent thinking, insight, and evaluation of the evidence.
• Quality of Written Communication – writing clearly and succinctly with appropriate use of paragraphs, spelling, and grammar. All sources are referenced accurately and in line with APA guidelines.

In the main body of the essay, every paragraph should demonstrate both knowledge and critical evaluation.

There should also be an appropriate balance between these two essay components. Try to aim for about a 60/40 split if possible.

Most students make the mistake of writing too much knowledge and not enough evaluation (which is the difficult bit).

It is best to structure your essay according to key themes. Themes are illustrated and developed through a number of points (supported by evidence).

Choose relevant points only, ones that most reveal the theme or help to make a convincing and interesting argument.

Knowledge and Understanding

Remember that an essay is simply a discussion / argument on paper. Don’t make the mistake of writing all the information you know regarding a particular topic.

You need to be concise, and clearly articulate your argument. A sentence should contain no unnecessary words, a paragraph no unnecessary sentences.

Each paragraph should have a purpose / theme, and make a number of points – which need to be support by high quality evidence. Be clear why each point is is relevant to the argument. It would be useful at the beginning of each paragraph if you explicitly outlined the theme being discussed (.e.g. cognitive development, social development etc.).

Try not to overuse quotations in your essays. It is more appropriate to use original content to demonstrate your understanding.

Psychology is a science so you must support your ideas with evidence (not your own personal opinion). If you are discussing a theory or research study make sure you cite the source of the information.

Note this is not the author of a textbook you have read – but the original source / author(s) of the theory or research study.

For example:

Bowlby (1951) claimed that mothering is almost useless if delayed until after two and a half to three years and, for most children, if delayed till after 12 months, i.e. there is a critical period.

Maslow (1943) stated that people are motivated to achieve certain needs. When one need is fulfilled a person seeks to fullfil the next one, and so on.

As a general rule, make sure there is at least one citation (i.e. name of psychologist and date of publication) in each paragraph.

Remember to answer the essay question. Underline the keywords in the essay title. Don’t make the mistake of simply writing everything you know of a particular topic, be selective. Each paragraph in your essay should contribute to answering the essay question.

Critical Evaluation

In simple terms, this means outlining the strengths and limitations of a theory or research study.

There are many ways you can critically evaluate:

Methodological evaluation of research

Is the study valid / reliable ? Is the sample biased, or can we generalize the findings to other populations? What are the strengths and limitations of the method used and data obtained?

Be careful to ensure that any methodological criticisms are justified and not trite.

Rather than hunting for weaknesses in every study; only highlight limitations that make you doubt the conclusions that the authors have drawn – e.g., where an alternative explanation might be equally likely because something hasn’t been adequately controlled.

Compare or contrast different theories

Outline how the theories are similar and how they differ. This could be two (or more) theories of personality / memory / child development etc. Also try to communicate the value of the theory / study.

Debates or perspectives

Refer to debates such as nature or nurture, reductionism vs. holism, or the perspectives in psychology . For example, would they agree or disagree with a theory or the findings of the study?

What are the ethical issues of the research?

Does a study involve ethical issues such as deception, privacy, psychological or physical harm?

Gender bias

If research is biased towards men or women it does not provide a clear view of the behavior that has been studied. A dominantly male perspective is known as an androcentric bias.

Cultural bias

Is the theory / study ethnocentric? Psychology is predominantly a white, Euro-American enterprise. In some texts, over 90% of studies have US participants, who are predominantly white and middle class.

Does the theory or study being discussed judge other cultures by Western standards?

Animal Research

This raises the issue of whether it’s morally and/or scientifically right to use animals. The main criterion is that benefits must outweigh costs. But benefits are almost always to humans and costs to animals.

Animal research also raises the issue of extrapolation. Can we generalize from studies on animals to humans as their anatomy & physiology is different from humans?

The PEC System

It is very important to elaborate on your evaluation. Don’t just write a shopping list of brief (one or two sentence) evaluation points.

Instead, make sure you expand on your points, remember, quality of evaluation is most important than quantity.

When you are writing an evaluation paragraph, use the PEC system.

• Make your P oint.
• E xplain how and why the point is relevant.
• Discuss the C onsequences / implications of the theory or study. Are they positive or negative?

For Example

• Point: It is argued that psychoanalytic therapy is only of benefit to an articulate, intelligent, affluent minority.
• Explain: Because psychoanalytic therapy involves talking and gaining insight, and is costly and time-consuming, it is argued that it is only of benefit to an articulate, intelligent, affluent minority. Evidence suggests psychoanalytic therapy works best if the client is motivated and has a positive attitude.
• Consequences: A depressed client’s apathy, flat emotional state, and lack of motivation limit the appropriateness of psychoanalytic therapy for depression.

Furthermore, the levels of dependency of depressed clients mean that transference is more likely to develop.

Using Research Studies in your Essays

Research studies can either be knowledge or evaluation.

• If you refer to the procedures and findings of a study, this shows knowledge and understanding.
• If you comment on what the studies shows, and what it supports and challenges about the theory in question, this shows evaluation.

Writing an Introduction

It is often best to write your introduction when you have finished the main body of the essay, so that you have a good understanding of the topic area.

If there is a word count for your essay try to devote 10% of this to your introduction.

Ideally, the introduction should;

Identify the subject of the essay and define the key terms. Highlight the major issues which “lie behind” the question. Let the reader know how you will focus your essay by identifying the main themes to be discussed. “Signpost” the essay’s key argument, (and, if possible, how this argument is structured).

Introductions are very important as first impressions count and they can create a h alo effect in the mind of the lecturer grading your essay. If you start off well then you are more likely to be forgiven for the odd mistake later one.

Writing a Conclusion

So many students either forget to write a conclusion or fail to give it the attention it deserves.

If there is a word count for your essay try to devote 10% of this to your conclusion.

Ideally the conclusion should summarize the key themes / arguments of your essay. State the take home message – don’t sit on the fence, instead weigh up the evidence presented in the essay and make a decision which side of the argument has more support.

Also, you might like to suggest what future research may need to be conducted and why (read the discussion section of journal articles for this).

Don”t include new information / arguments (only information discussed in the main body of the essay).

If you are unsure of what to write read the essay question and answer it in one paragraph.

Points that unite or embrace several themes can be used to great effect as part of your conclusion.

The Importance of Flow

Obviously, what you write is important, but how you communicate your ideas / arguments has a significant influence on your overall grade. Most students may have similar information / content in their essays, but the better students communicate this information concisely and articulately.

When you have finished the first draft of your essay you must check if it “flows”. This is an important feature of quality of communication (along with spelling and grammar).

This means that the paragraphs follow a logical order (like the chapters in a novel). Have a global structure with themes arranged in a way that allows for a logical sequence of ideas. You might want to rearrange (cut and paste) paragraphs to a different position in your essay if they don”t appear to fit in with the essay structure.

To improve the flow of your essay make sure the last sentence of one paragraph links to first sentence of the next paragraph. This will help the essay flow and make it easier to read.

Finally, only repeat citations when it is unclear which study / theory you are discussing. Repeating citations unnecessarily disrupts the flow of an essay.

Referencing

The reference section is the list of all the sources cited in the essay (in alphabetical order). It is not a bibliography (a list of the books you used).

In simple terms every time you cite/refer to a name (and date) of a psychologist you need to reference the original source of the information.

If you have been using textbooks this is easy as the references are usually at the back of the book and you can just copy them down. If you have been using websites, then you may have a problem as they might not provide a reference section for you to copy.

References need to be set out APA style :

Author, A. A. (year). Title of work . Location: Publisher.

Journal Articles

Author, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author, C. C. (year). Article title. Journal Title, volume number (issue number), page numbers

A simple way to write your reference section is use Google scholar . Just type the name and date of the psychologist in the search box and click on the “cite” link.

Next, copy and paste the APA reference into the reference section of your essay.

Once again, remember that references need to be in alphabetical order according to surname.

Psychology Guide: Writing for Psychology

• Getting Started
• Finding Resources
• Tests & Measures
• Search Smarter This link opens in a new window
• Statistics & Data Resources
• Resources for Writing a Thesis
• Referencing
• PY1106: Communicating Psychology: Listening, Translating & Disseminating: Literature Review Topics This link opens in a new window
• PY2018: Intercultural Psychology This link opens in a new window
• PY2106: Human Development Across the Lifespan This link opens in a new window
• PY2109: Environmental Psychology This link opens in a new window
• PY3102: Social Psychology This link opens in a new window
• PY3104: Principles of Counselling This link opens in a new window
• PY3106: Theoretical Foundations of Modern Psychology This link opens in a new window
• PY4209 Principles of Counselling Guide

Academic writing for psychology

Tutorial - basics of APA style

An introduction to writing in APA style produced by the American Psychological Society.

Writing in Psychology

This book helps readers become better writers of psychology and better writers in general. More comprehensive than similar texts, this book provides detailed coverage of how to write empirical reports, research proposals, and literature reviews.

Effective writing in psychology: Papers, posters, and presentations

This book helps users produce crisp scientific communication, form concise unambiguous arguments, and render technical information clear and comprehensible.

Succeeding with Your Literature Review

This step-by-step handbook provides comprehensive and practical guidance on the process of researching a range of relevant literature on a subject, as well as planning and writing a literature review. The book takes a student friendly approach to offer complete novices a simple review of a process which is often central to producing a research study.

APA Style Simplified

This book guides young scholars through the labyrinth of APA style. The author highlights the major elements of APA style and shows how to generate a coherent manuscript, as well as how to develop ideas, connect them to what others have written, and express them in a style that reflects a sophisticated knowledge of the subject area. 

An interactive approach to writing essays and research reports in psychology

This writing guide offers students an engaging, accessible introduction to the conventions of writing in the psychology discipline.

How to write psychology research reports and essays

Writing the literature review (part 1).

The next video (Part 2) can be viewed by clicking the link at the end of this video.

JCU writing guides

• Assignments

Writing a literature review

Your Liaison Librarian will be able to provide support and advice when you are doing your literature review, so make an appointment with your librarian when you start your research.

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How to Write Brilliant Psychology Essays

• Paul Dickerson - University of Roehampton, UK
• Description

“This book is one I wish I had bought at the start of my Psychology degree.” – Five-star review Essay writing is a key part of the Psychology degree and knowing how to write effective and compelling academic essays is key to success.  Whether it's understanding how to implement feedback you receive on essays, how to stop procrastinating or what makes an effective introduction, this book covers it all. Drawing on insights derived from teaching thousands of students over a 25-year period How to Write Brilliant Psychology Essays provides the keys that will unlock your writing potential.

Ace your Assignment  provide practical tips to help succeed

Exercises  help try the theory out in practice

Take away  points highlight the key learnings from each chapter

Online resources  provide even more help and guidance.

Supplements

Paul Dickerson, Emma McDonald and Christian van Nieuwerburgh discuss  study skills, wellbeing and employability  and explore   how university lecturers and student welfare teams can better  support Psychology students  through their university journey.

Students enjoyed this text - they found it easy to read and the author's dry sense of humour appealed to many. Not just for psychologists!

A really useful guide for students, breaking down the components of what constitutes a good essay and written from a subject-specific view - highly recommend

I have recommended this to my first year tutorial groups as it provides them with everything they need to know about producing an excellent psychology essay.

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How to Write a Great Psychology Essay

Categories Psychology Education

Writing a great psychology essay takes skill. You need good research skills to provide an adequate empirical background. You also need to put your analytical skills to work to evaluate the research and then build a coherent argument. If you are not used to writing psychology essays, it can be a little challenging at first (especially if you are also learning how to use APA format).

Remember, the skill of writing an exceptional psychology essay lies not only in presenting information, but also in synthesizing and explaining it effectively. If you need to write a psychology essay for a class, here are some tips to help you get started.

Table of Contents

Key Takeaways

• Craft a strong thesis statement highlighting the main points of your psychology essay.
• Incorporate research studies to support arguments and critically evaluate their validity and reliability.
• Structure the essay with a clear introduction, focused body paragraphs, and a compelling conclusion.
• Include critical analysis by evaluating research methodologies, strengths, weaknesses, and ethical considerations.

What to Include in an APA Format Essay

To craft a great psychology essay, it’s important to make sure you follow the right format. While your instructor may have specific instructions, the typical format for an essay includes the following sections:

• The title page
• The abstract
• The introduction
• The main body
• The reference section

Mastering the key components of a psychology essay is vital for crafting a compelling and academically sound piece of writing. To start, a good introduction sets the stage for your essay, providing a clear overview of what will be discussed.

Moving on to the main body, each paragraph should focus on a main theme, supported by evidence from research studies published in peer-reviewed journals. It’s pivotal to critically evaluate these studies, considering their validity, reliability, and limitations to strengthen your arguments.

Incorporating research studies not only adds credibility to your essay but also demonstrates a deep understanding of theoretical perspectives in psychology.

The Structure of a Psychology Essay

Each section of a psychology essay should also follow a specific format:

The Title Page

The title page is the first impression of your essay, and it should be formatted according to APA guidelines. It typically includes:

• The title of your essay : Make sure it’s concise, descriptive, and gives the reader an idea of its content.
• Your name : Place your full name below the title.
• Institutional affiliation : This usually refers to your university or college.
• Course number and name : Include the course for which the essay is being written.
• Instructor’s name : Write the name of your instructor.
• Due date : Indicate the date when the essay is due.

The Abstract

The abstract is a brief summary of your essay, typically around 150-250 words. It should provide a snapshot of the main points and findings. Key elements include:

• Research topic : Briefly describe what your essay is about.
• Research questions : Outline the main questions your essay addresses.
• Methodology : Summarize the methods used to gather information or conduct research.
• Results : Highlight the key findings.
• Conclusion : Provide a concise conclusion or the implications of your findings.

The Introduction

The introduction sets the stage for your essay, providing context and outlining the main points. It should include:

• Hook : Start with an interesting fact, quote, or anecdote to grab the reader’s attention.
• Background information : Provide necessary context or background information on your topic.
• Thesis statement : Clearly state the main argument or purpose of your essay.
• Overview of structure : Briefly outline the structure of your essay to give the reader a roadmap.

The Main Body

The main body is the core of your essay, where you present your arguments, evidence, and analysis. It should be well-organized and divided into sections with subheadings if necessary. Each section should include:

• Topic sentences : Start each paragraph with a clear topic sentence that introduces the main idea.
• Evidence : Provide evidence to support your arguments, such as data, quotes, or studies.
• Analysis : Analyze the evidence and explain how it supports your thesis.
• Transitions : Use transitions to ensure a smooth flow between paragraphs and sections.

The Reference Section

The reference section is crucial for giving credit to the sources you used and for allowing readers to locate the sources themselves. It should follow APA format and include:

• Alphabetical order : List all sources alphabetically by the author’s last name.
• Proper citation format : Follow APA guidelines for formatting each type of source (books, articles, websites, etc.).
• Hanging indent : Ensure that each reference entry has a hanging indent.

By following these guidelines, you can ensure that your psychology essay is well-structured, informative, and adheres to APA format.

Using Research in Your Psychology Essay

To strengthen the arguments in your psychology essay, it’s essential to incorporate relevant research studies that provide credibility and depth to your analysis. Utilizing research studies not only enhances the validity of your points but also demonstrates a deeper understanding of the topic at hand.

When integrating research into your essay, remember to include citations for each study referenced to give proper credit and allow readers to explore the sources further.

It is also important to evaluate the research studies you include to assess their validity, reliability, and any ethical considerations involved. This helps you determine the trustworthiness of the findings and whether they align with your argument.

Be sure to discuss any ethical concerns, such as participant deception or potential harm, and showcase a thoughtful approach to utilizing research in your essay.

Analyzing the Research Critically

When writing a psychology essay, using high-quality research sources and analyzing them critically is crucial. This not only strengthens your arguments but also ensures the credibility and reliability of your work. Here are some guidelines to help you critically analyze sources and use them appropriately:

Evaluating the Credibility of Sources

• Authorship : Check the credentials of the author. Are they an expert in the field? Do they have relevant qualifications or affiliations with reputable institutions?
• Publication Source : Determine where the research was published. Peer-reviewed journals, academic books, and respected organizations are considered reliable sources.
• Date of Publication : Ensure the research is current and up-to-date. In psychology, recent studies are often more relevant as they reflect the latest findings and theories.
• Citations and References : Look at how often the source is cited by other scholars. A frequently cited source is generally more credible.

Assessing the Quality of the Research

• Research Design and Methodology : Evaluate the research design. Is it appropriate for the study’s aims? Consider the sample size, controls, and methods used.
• Data Analysis : Check how the data was analyzed. Are the statistical methods sound and appropriate? Were the results interpreted correctly?
• Bias and Limitations : Identify any potential biases or limitations in the study. Authors should acknowledge these in their discussion.

Synthesizing Information from Multiple Sources

• Comparing Findings : Compare findings from different sources to identify patterns, trends, or discrepancies. This can help you understand the broader context and the range of perspectives on your topic.
• Integrating Evidence : Integrate evidence from various sources to build a comprehensive argument. Use multiple pieces of evidence to support each point or counterpoint in your essay.

Citing Sources Appropriately

• In-Text Citations : Follow APA guidelines for in-text citations. Include the author’s last name and the year of publication (e.g., Smith, 2020).
• Direct Quotes and Paraphrasing : When directly quoting, use quotation marks and provide a page number. For paraphrasing, ensure you rephrase the original text significantly and still provide an in-text citation.
• Reference List : Include a complete reference list at the end of your essay, formatted according to APA guidelines.

Using Sources to Support Your Argument

• Relevance : Ensure each source directly relates to your thesis or the specific point you are discussing. Irrelevant information can distract from your argument.
• Strength of Evidence : Use the strongest and most persuasive evidence available. Prioritize high-quality, peer-reviewed studies over less reliable sources.
• Balance : Present a balanced view by including evidence that supports and opposes your thesis. Acknowledging counterarguments demonstrates thorough research and critical thinking.

By critically analyzing research sources and using them appropriately, you can enhance the quality and credibility of your psychology essay. This approach ensures that your arguments are well-supported, your analysis is thorough, and your work adheres to academic standards.

Putting the Finishing Touches on Your Psychology Essay

Once you have a basic grasp of the topic and have written a rough draft of your psychology essay, the next step is to polish it up and ensure it is ready to turn in. To perfect your essay structure, consider the following:

• Make sure your topic is well-defined: Make sure your essay topic is specific and focused to provide a clear direction for your writing.
• Check that you are highlighting a main point in each paragraph: Commence each paragraph with a topic sentence that encapsulates the main idea you’ll discuss.
• Revise and refine your first draft: Take the time to review and refine your initial draft, guaranteeing that each section flows logically into the next and that your arguments are well-supported. ( Tip: Ask a friend of classmate to read through it to catch any typos or errors you might have missed. )
• Check your APA format : Use the APA publication manual to double-check that all your sources are cited and referenced correctly.

Creating an amazing psychology essay requires a compelling introduction, evidence-based arguments, a strong thesis statement, critical analysis, and a well-structured essay.

By incorporating research from peer-reviewed journals, evaluating studies for validity and reliability, and considering differing viewpoints and ethical considerations, you can craft a powerful and insightful piece that showcases your understanding of the topic.

With attention to detail and logical flow, your psychology essay will captivate and inform your readers effectively.

• Educational and developmental psychology

How to Write a Psychology Paper: An Expert Guide

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Psychology is based on the study of human behaviors. As a social science, experimental psychology uses empirical inquiry to help understand human behavior. According to Thrass and Sanford (2000), psychology writing has three elements: describing, explaining, and understanding concepts from a standpoint of empirical investigation.

Discipline-specific writing, such as writing done in psychology, can be similar to other types of writing you have done in the use of the writing process, writing techniques, and in locating and integrating sources. However, the field of psychology also has its own rules and expectations for writing; not everything that you have learned in about writing in the past works for the field of psychology.

Writing in psychology includes the following principles:

• Using plain language : Psychology writing is formal scientific writing that is plain and straightforward. Literary devices such as metaphors, alliteration, or anecdotes are not appropriate for writing in psychology.
• Conciseness and clarity of language : The field of psychology stresses clear, concise prose. You should be able to make connections between empirical evidence, theories, and conclusions. See our OWL handout on conciseness for more information.
• Evidence-based reasoning: Psychology bases its arguments on empirical evidence. Personal examples, narratives, or opinions are not appropriate for psychology.
• Use of APA format: Psychologists use the American Psychological Association (APA) format for publications. While most student writing follows this format, some instructors may provide you with specific formatting requirements that differ from APA format .

Types of writing

Most major writing assignments in psychology courses consists of one of the following two types.

Experimental reports: Experimental reports detail the results of experimental research projects and are most often written in experimental psychology (lab) courses. Experimental reports are write-ups of your results after you have conducted research with participants. This handout provides a description of how to write an experimental report .

Critical analyses or reviews of research : Often called "term papers," a critical analysis of research narrowly examines and draws conclusions from existing literature on a topic of interest. These are frequently written in upper-division survey courses. Our research paper handouts provide a detailed overview of how to write these types of research papers.

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Home Essay Samples

Essay Samples on Psychology

The majority of college students who have to deal with essays about Psychology are not necessarily future specialists in Psychology or Healthcare. Just think about modern business studies or marketing where leadership qualities must be studied. The same relates to Criminology or Forensic Research assignments where the use of psychology becomes essential. It provides modern learners with a plethora of ideas that can be explored. If you are stuck and need inspiration, focus on the free psychology essay examples that we provide for you. The list of subjects that are presented ranges from the theorists to case study samples to help you understand the difference between various essay types. Remember that your introduction part will always depend on your target audience and the level of knowledge they have. It means that you should provide statistical data or study reports only to an extent that will be sufficient for your methodology or academic objectives. See how it has been done in the free samples that we offer by reading actual writing. These are only provided as templates that you should use for inspirational and educational purposes. As you compose your own Psychology essay, keep things unique and always provide relevant references.

Why Psychology Major: Understanding the Human Mind

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• Social Psychology

Why Psychology: Exploring the Fascinating Depths of the Human Mind

Why psychology? This simple yet profound question has intrigued many curious minds over the years, including mine. The allure of psychology lies in its ability to delve into the intricate complexities of human behavior, cognition, and emotions. As a field that bridges science and humanity,...

Why I Chose Psychology: Path to Understanding the Human Mind

Why I chose psychology as my field of study is a question rooted in my profound curiosity about the complexities of the human mind and behavior. From a young age, I found myself intrigued by the intricate web of thoughts, emotions, and motivations that shape...

Sports Psychology: Unleashing the Mental Edge in Athletic Performance

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The Social Learning Theory in Psychology

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The Profound Contributions of Sigmund Freud to Psychology

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Exploring the Diverse Schools of Psychology

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Exploring the Depths of Psychology Research

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Psychology: Illuminating Perspectives in an Argumentative Discourse

Psychology is an ever-evolving realm that delves into the intricacies of the human mind, behavior, and emotions. As a discipline rooted in empirical investigation, it has sparked a myriad of debates and discussions that continue to shape our understanding of human nature. This essay embarks...

Exploring Personality Psychology: Unveiling the Complexities Within

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A Passion for Psychology: Nurturing the Flames Within

Passion for psychology ignites a fervent curiosity about the complexities of the human mind and behavior. It is a driving force that propels individuals to unravel the mysteries of cognition, emotion, and the intricate dynamics that shape our thoughts and actions. This essay delves into...

The History of Abnormal Psychology: Unveiling the Layers of Time

History of abnormal psychology takes us on a journey through time, tracing the evolution of our understanding of psychological disorders and the diverse ways in which societies have interpreted and responded to them. This essay delves into the intricate tapestry of the past, uncovering the...

Health Psychology: Exploring the Nexus of Mind and Body

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Free Will vs. Determinism in Psychology: Navigating the Paradox

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Psychology in Everyday Life: Unveiling the Intricacies

About psychology in everyday life encompasses the fascinating study of human behavior, thoughts, and emotions that shape our interactions, decisions, and experiences. This essay dives into the depths of psychology's presence in our daily lives, shedding light on its significance, applications, and the transformative power...

Exploring the Essence of Counselling Psychology

Counselling psychology is a profound and transformative field that embodies the art of guiding individuals towards self-discovery, healing, and growth. This essay delves into the heart of counselling psychology, shedding light on its core principles, therapeutic techniques, and the profound impact it has on the...

A Reflective on Clinical Psychology

Clinical psychology is a realm that delves into the intricate landscapes of the human mind, offering both challenges and revelations. This reflective essay on clinical psychology invites a contemplative exploration of my personal journey, growth, and insights as I navigated the complexities of this field....

What Motivates Me as a Student

What motivates you as a student? This question delves into the driving forces that ignite my passion for learning and shape my academic journey. From the pursuit of knowledge to personal growth and future aspirations, my motivations are diverse and ever-evolving. This essay will explore...

What Does Resilience Mean to Me: a Lifelong Companion

What does resilience mean to you? Resilience, a quality often admired and aspired to, is a trait that holds significant meaning in my life. In this essay, I will delve into my personal understanding and interpretation of resilience, exploring its essence, its impact on my...

Unraveling Learning Processes: Exploring the Difference Between Classical and Operant Conditioning

Learning is a complex process that underlies our behaviors and responses to the environment. Classical conditioning and operant conditioning are two prominent theories that provide insights into how learning occurs. This essay delves into the fundamental difference between classical and operant conditioning, shedding light on...

• Classical Conditioning
• Operant Conditioning

Evolution of Childhood: Comparing Childhood Today to the Past

The concept of childhood has undergone significant transformation over time. Childhood today is vastly different from what it was in the past, shaped by changes in culture, technology, education, and societal norms. This essay explores the key differences and similarities of childhood today compared to...

Compare and Contrast Ananysis of Piaget and Vygotsky in Terms of Cognitive Development

Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky are two influential figures in the field of developmental psychology who have offered distinct theories on cognitive development. While their approaches share commonalities, they also diverge in fundamental ways. This compare and contrast essay delves into the key similarities and...

• Jean Piaget
• Lev Vygotsky Theory

Childhood and Adulthood: Compare And Contrast the Main Phases of Life

The transition from childhood to adulthood is a profound journey marked by significant physical, emotional, and psychological changes. Childhood and adulthood represent distinct phases of life, each with its own set of experiences, responsibilities, and perspectives. This compare and contrast essay explores the similarities and...

Analysis of Social Media Effects on Body Image

In today's digitally connected world, social media has become an integral part of our lives, influencing the way we communicate, share, and perceive ourselves. One of the prominent and concerning aspects of social media is its effects on body image. The relentless exposure to carefully...

• Effects of Social Media

Religion and Morality in Arthur Miller's "The Crucible"

Introduction Arthur Miller’s “The Crucible” is a compelling critique of the dark and tangled web of society, politics, and morality. Set in 1692 during the Salem Witch Trials, this play serves as a vivid reflection of the oppressive nature of McCarthyism in the 1950s in...

• The Crucible

How to Overcome Procrastination by Making It Your Friend

How to overcome procrastination? Usually, human beings have a tendency to see procrastination as some component bad. They invent dozens of techniques how to give up procrastinating and extend their efficiency, forgetting about the reality that like many extraordinary psychological mechanisms, procrastination serves its own...

• Procrastination

How to Deal With Procrastination: My Experience

Procrastination is something I am almost certain that everyone experiences at some point in their university lives (or life in general), and for some of us, it happens on the daily. This can cause a bit of a tricky situation, where the inability to force...

• Personal Experience

Different Perspectives in Modern Psychology: an Overview

Psychology encompasses the scientific study of the mind and brain, exploring the intricacies of human cognition, emotion, and behavior. This essay provides an overview of the different perspectives in modern psychology, each offering unique insights into the functioning of the mind and its manifestations in...

• Cognitive Psychology
• Human Behavior
• Perspective

Cause and Effect of Procrastination Among College Students

Introduction Procrastination is an activity that most college students have gone through throughout their high school career. The meaning of procrastination is, as stated by Ferrari et al., 'derived from Latin verbs. 'Pro' refers to forward motion, and 'crastinus' refers to belonging to tomorrow' (qtd....

• College Students

Rising Above Negativity: A Journey in Music and Self-Belief

My Early Music Career Let me inform you about a time when I realized a life lesson. A couple of weeks ago, I started out producing music; I was once just starting as a producer, and I had no prior expertise in song theory. I...

• Life Lesson

Exploring Child Development: Observations and Developmental Theories

Introduction “Social psychology often looks at basic human need to fit in and calls this the normative social influence” (AtheneWins, 2011). There are many developmental theories and there is a relative overlapping among them. The knowledge of this theories is important in the nursing field...

• Child Behavior
• Childhood Development
• First Day of School

The Power Dynamics of Adolescent Marginality & Intergenerational Conflict

Abstract Adolescents are often seen as lazy and/or entitled by older generations. Typically, we can see this today in the baby boomer generation. In this paper I will be applying Sociological Theories to this stereotype, Intergenerational Conflict to be exact. Throughout the years older generations...

• Adolescence
• Critical Theory
• Sociological Theory

Common Childhood Illness: Treatments and Exclusion Periods

When working with young children, practitioners need to be aware of common childhood illnesses, the signs and symptoms and how to treat children when they become unwell. Common childhood illness includes a common cold, asthma, chickenpox, hand foot and mouth, meningitis, whopping cough, conjunctivitis, and...

The Existence of Genuine Altruism From Social Psychology Perspective

There are several social behaviours that humans exhibit some are negative and some are positive. Altruism is one of such social behaviours. What is altruism and is there anything like genuine altruism? This essay attempts to answer the question whether there is genuine altruism from...

The Psychological State of Ressentiment in the Genealogy of Morals

The psychological state Friedrich Nietzsche terms as ressentiment in the Genealogy of Morals, is a human condition attributed to a feeling produced when placed within a hostile environment. One which man is found powerless to alter through physical action. Those inflicted to this deprived orientation...

• Friedrich Nietzsche
• Philosophical Works

Nurturing Students for Life: The Power of Teachers as Role Models and the Integration of Learning Theories

​The most valuable thing that teachers can provide for a student is not only the pure knowledge but also ability to preparation for life. All teachers should be aware of their power on children and be a good role model for them even though it...

Assessing Adolescent Knowledge and Attitudes towards Reproductive Health

Reproductive health is the important component in the adolescent age, as the one which is in highly risk group to get different sexual and reproductive health problem. Reproductive health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being in all matters relating to the...

• Reproductive Health
• Sexual Health

Exploration of Psychodynamic and the Behavioural Learning Approaches

Psychology is the scientific study of the mind that influences our behaviour using professional practice. The word psychology comes from the Greek 'psyche' meaning mind, soul and spirit. Wilhelm Wundt opened the first psychological laboratory in Germany to investigate the mind through inspection and observation...

• Psychologists
• Sigmund Freud

Prosocial Intergroup Behavior in Norway: Study Review

Prosocial behavior is a universal concept observed on a world-wide basis through acts of donations, protests, petitions and other voluntary behaviors. Various factors may serve as motivations for why individuals choose to engage in prosocial behavior. The world in the 21st century is in a...

• Prosocial Behavior
• Volunteering

The Role of a Clinical Psychologist in Treating Problem Drinking: Examining Effective Therapeutic Approaches

Problem drinking is not necessarily alcoholism; alcoholism is, however, a form of problem drinking. For a problem drinker when they drink it can cause problems for them and those around them, but they are not necessarily physically dependent on alcohol. They may be able to...

• Job Description

The Relationship Between Prosocial Behaviour and Mimicry

People are naturally inclined to mimic. Mimicry has been observed across all cultures and ages in peculiar phenomena like contagious yawning or laughter. Chartrand and Bargh noted that people frequently imitate others’ posture and facial expressions unintentionally, and Bandura demonstrated the essential role of mimicry...

Reflective Learning: the Power of Self-Analysis and Personal Growth

A reflective essay is a unique form of essay writing where you examine an experience and reflect on your own self. Use strong evidence and explain the real or imaginary scene in an interesting manner. A reflective essay is a type of writing in which...

• Critical Reflection
• Self Reflection

Albert Bandura: Pioneering Contributions to Social Learning Theory

'Learning would be exceedingly laborious, not to mention hazardous, if people had to rely solely on the effects of their own actions to inform them what to do'. Albert Bandura was a Canadian born psychologist who identified The Social Learning theory in the 1960's. Psychology...

• Famous Person

Discussion on the Relationship Between Intelligence and Creativity

The relationship between intelligence and creativity has been subjected to research for many years. Unfortunately, there is yet no consensus on how these constructs are related. The connection between intelligence and creativity is that they are functions of the brain that handle data to determine...

• Intelligence

Cognitive Explanation of Schizophrenia: Implications of the Theory

Schizophrenia is a severe mental illness that affects how a person thinks, feels, and behaves. It is a complex disorder that involves a wide range of symptoms, including hallucinations, delusions, and disordered thinking. The cognitive explanation of schizophrenia is revealed in this essay as one...

• Schizophrenia

What Is Emotional Intelligence: the Significance of Human Beings

Ever since I was a child I developed a great passion regarding human beings and their behaviour in all sorts of situations, no matter the context. I have always paid attention to the importance of emotions in day to day life, and I noticed in...

• Emotional Intelligence

Creative and Critical Thinking: Combining the Achievements of Thought

Creative, one word that can be interpreted in many ways whether in thoughts which is include ways of thinking and actions and also in verbal form. Critical, on the other side refers to the ability to analyse information objectively and make a reasoned judgment. It...

• Critical Thinking

Critical Thinking Skills and Their Importance Today

As rapid urbanization continues to dominate the world, humans are being exposed to brand new ideas that feeds their mind logistically as well as holistically. This phenomenon in turn opens an opportunity for us to gain knowledge in various subjects that equips us with an...

How Unrealistic Beauty Standards on Social Media Affect Girls

Teenagers are affected by social media everyday by posting pictures and worrying about what other people are thinking. According to Mahita Gajanan from 'The Guardian' did a study and asked girls about their self-esteem and experiences with social media. Most of the girls that were...

• Media Influence

How to Cope With Stress: Personality Types and Bible Verses

Since stress is an important contributing factor towards all kinds of diseases, knowing how to cope with it is a major key to good health. Therefore, it is important to learn the different methods that can be used in order to reduce stress or even...

• Stress Response

College Stress: How to Manage It and Keep It Under Your Control

Most likely the least refreshing type of stress is college stress. This is generally because of the way that grown-ups essentially observe a great deal of college understudies sitting on their backsides playing computer games and drinking, rather than seeing understudies who are experiencing strain...

• Academic Challenges

The Most Stressful Life Stage: Exploring Adolescence

Adolescence is the transitional period in human development between childhood and adulthood. It is also described as a period of rapid growth, where a person undergoes major changes in the physical, psychological and social domains. It is also important for the development of identity, as...

Nature vs Nurture: Is Identity Innate or Learned

Introduction The idea of being loved whether it be by family, significant other, or even by society, is one that we all strive for in our day-to-day lives, however, is this love we are trying to receive based on things we have lack of control...

• Individual Identity
• Nature Versus Nurture

Resilient and Resilience in Relation to Optimism and Well Being

When I started to learn positive psychology I had absolutly no idea what to expect from it, so I just thought that it will be some hippie practise about how to be happy all the time. Then we had our first lesson. We learned about...

Negative Effects of Technology on Child Development and Mental Health

Technology has rapidly grown throughout the world and has become the most reliable necessity in the world today. Tablets, cameras, laptops, smartphones, etc. devices have overtaken the human population. The world is surrounded by technology all around- at home, at school, at work, everywhere. On...

• Negative Impact of Technology

Being Resilient: The Features That Foster Resilience

Before this course, I had very little and superficial knowledge about resilience but now after studying this course in detail, I understand this concept much better. For me, resilience is the ability bounce back after adverse situations. In the video, Michael Chandler defines resilient individuals...

Negative Effects of Technology on Child Development

In our modern society, technology is everywhere, specifically digital technology, and nearly everyone has some form of device whether it is a smartphone, smartwatch, tablet, laptop, computer, television, or even smart tv. Our world is loaded with technology because in theory it is all supposed...

Procrastination and the Harmful Effects of It on Job Performance

Procrastination is when someone has a job or task to do, and they say “I will do it later.” If they put it off until later, in some cases, they can lose your job. If someone is a chef and they reply to your boss...

• Performance

Childhood Trauma and Its Negative Effects on the Child's Development

Complex childhood trauma is currently suffered by numerous students in Primary schools around the world. It usually commences in the early years of a child’s life, when they are exposed to pervasive and traumatic events causing severe impacts that will continue to disrupt a number...

Body Image and Mental Health: Impact of Social Media

Technology is quickly rising and upgrading every day and social media has become one of the most-used forms of technology. Social media such as Instagram, Twitter and Snapchat are digital platforms which allow users to upload and share their content with others and also make...

Body Image Pressure Among Young Adults and Adolescence

Body image and its notion of impressing other people through it has become like a general trend amongst the youth. They try to change their body figures, and their characters while trying to impress others. The majority of youths do matters to enhance how they...

Effects Of Growing Up With a Single Parent and How It Can Affect Your Life

Growing up in a single parent household can affect your life in many ways, a few examples includes how you view your relationships, how you carry yourself, and especially your future. Half of my existence I grew up in a single parent household and I...

• Single Parenting

Why Juveniles Should Not Be Tried As Adults

Furthermore, children that commit crimes are products of their environment in which they live. For example, when children constantly get sexually abused, it causes immense amounts of trauma and a false sense of love. Often a traumatic experience for all is an offense punishable by...

• Criminal Behavior

What Was The Environment In Which You Were Raised

I remember myself since I was three years old. I was a lively and inquisitive child. I had many friends and we spent a lot of time together. My parents were very busy at that moment, they were working and building our house. I spent...

Benefits and Importance Of Early Childhood Education

“If school is about learning, and learning starts at birth, then the idea that we expect Kindergarteners to meet their first teachers at age five is all wrong. There is increasing research being facilitated on early education with specific emphasis on the overall benefits it...

• Early Childhood Education
• Importance of Education

The Transition From Childhood To Adulthood

 As human beings, we start off as just a fetus in a mother's womb. However, as time passes, we evolve. Every human being goes through many different phases in life. We go from being babies and eventually we become adults. Each phase is unique and...

Causes and Treatment of Childhood Obesity

'He is just a kid, give him what he wants'. This is the phase that is mostly used by the parents in order to encourage their children from eating what they want as long as it will make them happy. However, the statistic has shown...

• Childhood Obesity
• Eating Disorders

Human Nature in the Lost TV Show: Are Humans Inherently Good or Evil

Throughout humanity, the nature of humankind has been questioned by philosophers, leading them to conclude whether humans are inherently good or evil. Thomas Hobbes, a British philosopher that lived in the 1600s, believes that humans are born selfish and greedy, which leads to violence and...

• Good and Evil
• Human Nature

The Benefits of Video Games Both for Children and Adults

Ever since the 1970s the video game industry has grown quite a lot in popularity and has become the largest market in the world. There have been a lot of changes to how video games are made not only in the different genres for people...

• Development
• Human Development
• Video Games

Why is Early Childhood Education Important

In this essay, I will discuss how strong value operates within the perspective of education and what are main concepts, design of theories from conforming perspective of education. This essay will show some theories which are pedagogy. My explanation will be reflected by nature and...

Problem Solving: Use of Math in Our Everyday Life

What I say about math is that I really don’t like it, but at the end of the day through high school math I have learned how to solve problems and not give up when I don’t fully understand something. I dislike math, but I do need it. The reason why I dislike math is that...

• Mathematics in Everyday Life
• Problem Solving

Why You Should Let Your Kid Play Football

It’s Friday night. Many parents and friends gather around to watch us in our first game of the year. The lights slowly begin to light up the field as we approach the 50-yard line, we toss the coin and the game begins. Down by 7...

• Child Development

Growing A Grit And Growth Mindset

In today's society, there is a belief that intelligence is tied to GPA. There is a stereotype about intelligence. It is the idea that you are either smart or not smart. You either understand it or you do not. What happens if you are between?...

• Personal Growth and Development

Effects Of Violent Video Gaming On Human Behavior

There are many various kinds of games and consoles within the world and vying worldwide. Video play has become a very common trade all over the world and has been growing exceptionally throughout the past twenty years. Gamers that are obsessed with online play are...

• Impact of Video Games
• Violence in Video Games

Why I Want To Be A Teacher: It Isn’t Just A Career, But It's A Calling

Being a teacher isn’t just a career, having the ability to enable a child to further make sense of the world around them and become a honourable and respectful member of society, gives me such a profound sense of pride and happiness. I want to...

• Teaching Philosophy

Bilingual Education In Childhood For Effective Social Communication And Development

Today’s society places a heavy emphasis on the importance of being an effective social communicator, whether it be through verbal or non-verbal skills. Presently, more than half of the world’s population is multilingual and an increasingly larger number of people have been exposed to another...

• Bilingualism
• Educational Psychology

Importance of Reflection and Learning From Past Incidents

To practice competently, reflection is important because it allows one to critically think about past or present events, evaluate situations and then use the knowledge obtained to act accordingly in future situations. All of which improves patient care and helps minimise bad practice in the...

Solution-Focused and Cognitive Behaviour Therapy

In this essay I would like to examine three approaches, Gestalt, Solution-focused therapy, and Cognitive Behaviour therapy and how I intend on using them within my practice as an integrative counsellor. In my previous essay I proposed how I would use the person centred, psychodynamic...

• Cognitive Behavioral Therapy

Transition's Impact on a Child’s Mental Health

In this essay I will be discussing and outlining the issues of how the transition can have an impact on a child’s mental health, emotions and their overall academic performance. I will also be discussing how development and puberty can affect a child, as well...

• Child Psychology
• Growth Mindset

Emergency Management and Bystander Behavior Effect

This essay will compare and contrast two approaches to understanding bystander responses to emergencies. The approaches explored in the essay are the experiment approach and discourse analysis, each being explained in further detail later in the essay. Bystander behavior (effect) can be explained as the...

• Emergency Management
• The Bystander Effect

The Impact of Technology on Wealth, Aging, and Lifestyle

Wealth, lifestyle, aging populations, and technological advances are said to be having a major impact on the growth of healthcare demand. This essay considers the impact of each of these factors and discusses how successful the introduction of so called ‘sin-taxes‘ have been in changing...

Individual Differences and Differences in the Functioning of Brain

It is irrefutable that people differ considerably from one another, with this variability arising from a unique combination of hereditary, biological factors and lived environmental experiences. Comprising persistent individual factors differentiating individuals from one another to establish distinctiveness, individual differences (namely those of intelligence and...

• Human Brain

An Essay Concerning Human Understanding byJohn Locke

Psychology was derived from two other disciplines; physiology, the study of how living things work, and philosophy, the theories behind why living things behave the way they do. Philosophy and physiology are intertwined, in that they both have contributed to the study of the other....

The Role of Personal Development Planning Today

The essay deals with the PKSC module experiences that reflect on the academic study. Here, the different lectures are guided regarding the reflection that ensure the personal development. The other skills are mentioned research skills, digital skills, reading skills and MS office skills. Besides, the...

• Personal Development Planning
• Personal Goals

Psychosexual Development Theory and Child’s Personality

In this essay I am going to examine the age group of children 0-5 and how the psychological experience can impact on their transitions, during their life span. To achieve this task, I am going to analyze different theories in relation to all holistic aspects...

• Homosexuality

Influence of Two Key Learning and Development Theories

This essay will discuss the applications and influence of two key learning and development theories to educational practice and policy. The aim is of this essay is to discuss two key development theories to educational practices. The two key theories are 1. Piaget and his...

• Developmental Psychology
• Learning Styles
• Study Skills

Social Phenomena of Individual and External Circumstances in a Society

In todays society scholars all across the world have conflict in the matter which talks about how race and an individual’s identity shapes how we all live our lives. We can all come to a conclusion where we agree that everyone from individuals to a...

Optimism: Perception of Life is a Matter of Perspective

Our perception of life is a matter of perspective. From a young age we are taught to see the glass as half-empty or half-full. This perception is a simple example of optimistic or pessimistic behavior. Optimism is typically viewed as an individual’s ability to see...

• Positive Psychology

The Move “Better Luck Tomorrow” by Justine Lin

The move, illustrates an image hidden behind well-mannered students of Sunny Hills high schools who are trying hard to over achieve. The main characters Ben and Virgil is showed as those over achievers of high schools who are known for their grades and extracurricular activities....

• Social Movement

Swimming as a Hard Skill Necessary for Human Being

Swimming is hard. For non-swimmers swimming is harder than most realise and not easy to take up as a regular sport. All those good swimmers you see have excellent cardio-respiratory fitness and often years of technique training. So don't be discouraged. And... The first step...

The Benefits of Online Dating to Society

“There’s the old saying that you have to kiss a lot of frogs to find a prince”, and I think that really applies to online dating. The growing popularity of online dating sites is significantly remarkable. The dramatic increase in Internet usage, indeed, has spread...

• Online Dating

How Peer Pressure Push an Adolescent to Be a Part of Peer Group

The theoretical framework which is for the complete dissertation inquiry, serves as the guide on which to build and help the study, consists of the selected concept (or theories) that under-builds researcher’s thinking with regards to how they apprehend and design to lookup the topic....

• Peer Pressure

Puberty as The Major Fascinating Transition Throughout Lifespan

A biological process that marks the transition from childhood to adolescence is Puberty. “Puberty is a period of the life span marked by major psychological, endocrine and physical changes that contribute to the metamorphosis of children into reproductively mature adolescents.” Puberty is when your body...

A Deviant Behavior of the Filipino Using the Merton’s Strain

An American Sociologist named Robert K. Merton was born on July 4, 1910 in Philadelphia. This American sociologist developed the Merton’s Strain Theory of Deviance which explains the rising crime rates expression in the United Stated of America (USA) at that time. This theory states...

• Deviant Behavior

Human Behavior on the Example of the History and Culture of the United States of America

 The United States of America is a unique country indeed. Unique, powerful, modern, advanced in so many arenas. Compared to other countries of similar size and population, America easily overshadows in technological advances, education and legal systems. However, because our great nation is relatively young...

• American History

Adult Education and ITS Philosophies

Before pursuing courses on adult education, it had been a while since I had contemplated on educational philosophies and what my actual style might entailed. When assigned this task, I assumed it would be easy to determine, ‘right?’ not so much, given the fact that...

• Adult Education Program

The Concept of a Passive and Active Bystander Effect

Groups willingness to help others can be affected in many ways one specifically being the bystander effect. The bystander effect is the tendency for people be unresponsive in high pressure situations due to the presence of other people (Darley & Latane, 1968). There are two...

Review the Different Hypnotherapy Techniques for Phobias 

This essay will look at what stress and anxiety are and how that can challenge diagnosis and impact treatment. before going on to other limitations of treatment. I will address phobias; the difference between fears and phobia and how that impacts on choices of treatment...

The Expectations of the Stroop Effect

The Stroop effect is an experimental design that analyzes our automatic responses when observing incongruent stimuli. In this study, a short experimental naming test will be performed with both neutral and interference conditions. A picture of fruit was displayed on a screen with either an...

• Stroop Effect

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Free APA Journals ™ Articles

Recently published articles from subdisciplines of psychology covered by more than 90 APA Journals™ publications.

For additional free resources (such as article summaries, podcasts, and more), please visit the Highlights in Psychological Research page.

• Basic / Experimental Psychology
• Clinical Psychology
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• Moving While Black: Intergroup Attitudes Influence Judgments of Speed (PDF, 71KB) Journal of Experimental Psychology: General February 2016 by Andreana C. Kenrick, Stacey Sinclair, Jennifer Richeson, Sara C. Verosky, and Janetta Lun
• Recognition Without Awareness: Encoding and Retrieval Factors (PDF, 116KB) Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition September 2015 by Fergus I. M. Craik, Nathan S. Rose, and Nigel Gopie
• The Tip-of-the-Tongue Heuristic: How Tip-of-the-Tongue States Confer Perceptibility on Inaccessible Words (PDF, 91KB) Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition September 2015 by Anne M. Cleary and Alexander B. Claxton
• Cognitive Processes in the Breakfast Task: Planning and Monitoring (PDF, 146KB) Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology / Revue canadienne de psychologie expérimentale September 2015 by Nathan S. Rose, Lin Luo, Ellen Bialystok, Alexandra Hering, Karen Lau, and Fergus I. M. Craik
• Searching for Explanations: How the Internet Inflates Estimates of Internal Knowledge (PDF, 138KB) Journal of Experimental Psychology: General June 2015 by Matthew Fisher, Mariel K. Goddu, and Frank C. Keil
• Client Perceptions of Corrective Experiences in Cognitive Behavioral Therapy and Motivational Interviewing for Generalized Anxiety Disorder: An Exploratory Pilot Study (PDF, 62KB) Journal of Psychotherapy Integration March 2017 by Jasmine Khattra, Lynne Angus, Henny Westra, Christianne Macaulay, Kathrin Moertl, and Michael Constantino
• Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Developmental Trajectories Related to Parental Expressed Emotion (PDF, 160KB) Journal of Abnormal Psychology February 2016 by Erica D. Musser, Sarah L. Karalunas, Nathan Dieckmann, Tara S. Peris, and Joel T. Nigg
• The Integrated Scientist-Practitioner: A New Model for Combining Research and Clinical Practice in Fee-For-Service Settings (PDF, 58KB) Professional Psychology: Research and Practice December 2015 by Jenna T. LeJeune and Jason B. Luoma
• Psychotherapists as Gatekeepers: An Evidence-Based Case Study Highlighting the Role and Process of Letter Writing for Transgender Clients (PDF, 76KB) Psychotherapy September 2015 by Stephanie L. Budge
• Perspectives of Family and Veterans on Family Programs to Support Reintegration of Returning Veterans With Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PDF, 70KB) Psychological Services August 2015 by Ellen P. Fischer, Michelle D. Sherman, Jean C. McSweeney, Jeffrey M. Pyne, Richard R. Owen, and Lisa B. Dixon
• "So What Are You?": Inappropriate Interview Questions for Psychology Doctoral and Internship Applicants (PDF, 79KB) Training and Education in Professional Psychology May 2015 by Mike C. Parent, Dana A. Weiser, and Andrea McCourt
• Cultural Competence as a Core Emphasis of Psychoanalytic Psychotherapy (PDF, 81KB) Psychoanalytic Psychology April 2015 by Pratyusha Tummala-Narra
• The Role of Gratitude in Spiritual Well-Being in Asymptomatic Heart Failure Patients (PDF, 123KB) Spirituality in Clinical Practice March 2015 by Paul J. Mills, Laura Redwine, Kathleen Wilson, Meredith A. Pung, Kelly Chinh, Barry H. Greenberg, Ottar Lunde, Alan Maisel, Ajit Raisinghani, Alex Wood, and Deepak Chopra
• Nepali Bhutanese Refugees Reap Support Through Community Gardening (PDF, 104KB) International Perspectives in Psychology: Research, Practice, Consultation January 2017 by Monica M. Gerber, Jennifer L. Callahan, Danielle N. Moyer, Melissa L. Connally, Pamela M. Holtz, and Beth M. Janis
• Does Monitoring Goal Progress Promote Goal Attainment? A Meta-Analysis of the Experimental Evidence (PDF, 384KB) Psychological Bulletin February 2016 by Benjamin Harkin, Thomas L. Webb, Betty P. I. Chang, Andrew Prestwich, Mark Conner, Ian Kellar, Yael Benn, and Paschal Sheeran
• Youth Violence: What We Know and What We Need to Know (PDF, 388KB) American Psychologist January 2016 by Brad J. Bushman, Katherine Newman, Sandra L. Calvert, Geraldine Downey, Mark Dredze, Michael Gottfredson, Nina G. Jablonski, Ann S. Masten, Calvin Morrill, Daniel B. Neill, Daniel Romer, and Daniel W. Webster
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Artificial Intelligence

How ai could damage your child’s reading and writing skills, when ai replaces reading, the weakest students suffer the most..

Posted August 21, 2024 | Reviewed by Davia Sills

• AI damages the reading skills of poor readers who rely on it to avoid reading and writing.
• Students learn most of their vocabulary from reading, not direct instruction.
• Less reading leads to slower, more effortful reading, which then leads to even less reading.
• Volume and frequency of reading correlates to academic achievement across subjects.

If you’re a parent or a teacher—especially of English Language Arts (ELA)—you should be losing sleep over the four most harmful effects of AI. From Claude to ChatGPT, AI enables students to generate essays, papers, and even answers to tests without reading a word. Not even of AI’s hallucination-filled responses to the questions that students should be answering for themselves.

This latest development adds to the wealth of online resources that offer poor and reluctant readers summaries and analyses of virtually every book on ELA syllabi. Sources like SparkNotes and Study.com already invite reluctant readers to cobble together writing assignments or fumble their way through class discussions of reading assignments. However, AI now removes reading from the loop entirely.

For slow, struggling, reluctant readers, the damage will be both profound and long-lasting—worsening reading and writing skills and aggravating already-poor performances across science, math, history, and, of course, both reading and writing for four distinct reasons.

1. Students learn most of their vocabulary from reading, not instruction.

Students with learning difficulties enjoy three times the benefits from instruction on vocabulary in grades K-12. However, a meta-analysis of 37 studies —and thousands of students—found that direct instruction on vocabulary lacked any measurable impact on standardized reading measures. Moreover, for students in secondary grades reading across subjects, the benefits of teaching vocabulary were statistically insignificant.

In contrast, a more recent study found that students’ free reading was 1.7 times more effective than learning vocabulary in class in the short term. Furthermore, students’ self-directed reading was 12 times more effective in developing students’ vocabularies over the longer term.

2. The frequency of reading correlates to academic achievement across subjects.

Students who read for pleasure benefit from higher measures of academic success across disciplines, including science, math, history, and ELA. Even in a study conducted across only a single marking period for 11th graders, self-identified avid readers scored an average of 8 percent higher on subject-specific test scores than reluctant readers. By their own admission, reluctant readers identified themselves as having never finished reading a book or reading fewer than two books per year.

3. Less reading = more effortful reading = even less reading

Most commercial reading programs provide about 15 minutes of daily reading activity. Yet students become better readers faster and excel at reading across more subjects when teachers provide students with access to wider reading options and more time for independent reading. Moreover, strong readers display a stronger mastery of vocabulary than weak readers.

In stark contrast, weak readers struggle to identify word meanings and exhibit difficulties in understanding sentence structure . Furthermore, vocabulary and sentence structure prove essential to reading with speed and ease, making reading slower, more challenging, and still less inviting to poor readers. Reluctant readers are seldom strong, speedy readers .

4. Reading sources strongly influence writers’ word choice and sentence structure.

Finally, good writers acquire their skills from the sources they read. As writers, the sources we read strongly influence our word choice and sentence structure. In studies of reading and its influence on word choice and sentence structure, the most sophisticated writers routinely read well-written news and cultural magazines rather than literature or fiction. And the link between reading sources and writing style proved greater than the frequency of reading favored sources —or the frequency of writing.

Strategies to Counter AI’s Influence

But parents and teachers can still minimize the odds of reluctant readers reaching for ChatGPT or even SparkNotes through four proven strategies. First, if teachers have latitude on the books they assign, they should choose a book published no earlier than 2023 —or a book with virtually no online presence, which can include some older, terrific books that have seldom featured on school syllabi. Since AI generates its predictions from online sources, this off-the-radar title will generate easily spotted AI hallucinations. Ideally, this sign should prompt an immediate do-over, a warning about a failing grade, and a brief communication with a parent.

Second, in essays, teachers should request at least two direct quotes for each claim students make. Even for evergreen titles, like Pride and Prejudice or, god forbid, Lord of the Flies , AI currently fabricates second or third direct quotes—again, easily spotted because the AI typically attributes an off-topic quote from the wrong character to provide a second or third quote.

Third, teachers should ask students to take unusual perspectives in their writing assignments. For example, what would happen if Sherlock Holmes got involved in investigating the peculiar events at Thornfield Hall in Jane Eyre ? Humans excel at divergent thinking; AI is currently incapable of it.

And, finally, teachers use class discussions as a springboard for writing assignments. Teachers can require students to provide evidence from their reading assignment to prove or disprove points raised in class—something AI will be unable to hack.

Yellowlees Douglas, Ph.D. , is a consultant on writing and organizations. She is also the author, with Maria B. Grant, MD, of The Biomedical Writer: What You Need to Succeed in Academic Medicine .

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