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How To Write a Manuscript? Step-by-Step Guide to Research Manuscript Writing

Getting published for the first time is a crucial milestone for researchers, especially early career academics. However, the journey starting from how to write a manuscript for a journal to successfully submitting your scientific study and then getting it published can be a long and arduous one. Many find it impossible to break through the editorial and peer review barriers to get their first article published. In fact, the pressure to publish, the high rejection rates of prestigious journals, and the waiting period for a publication decision may often cause researchers to doubt themselves, which negatively impacts research productivity.

While there is no quick and easy way to getting published, there are some proven tips for writing a manuscript that can help get your work the attention it deserves. By ensuring that you’ve accounted for and ticked the checklist for manuscript writing in research you can significantly increase the chances of your manuscript being accepted.

In this step‐by‐step guide, we answer the question – ­­ how to write a manuscript for publication – by presenting some practical tips for the same.

As a first step, it is important that you spend time to identify and evaluate the journal you plan to submit your manuscript to. Data shows that 21% of manuscripts are desk rejected by journals, with another approximately 40% being rejected after peer review 1 , often because editors feel that the submission does not add to the “conversation” in their journal.  Therefore, even before you actually begin the process of manuscript writing, it is a good idea to find out how other similar studies have been presented. This will not only give you an understanding of where your research stands within the wider academic landscape, it will also provide valuable insights on how to present your study when writing a manuscript so that it addresses the gaps in knowledge and stands apart from current published literature.

The next step is to begin the manuscript writing process. This is the part that people find really daunting. Most early career academics feel overwhelmed at this point, and they often look for tips on how to write a manuscript to help them sort through all the research data and present it correctly. Experts suggest following the IMRaD (Introduction, Methods, Results, and Discussion) structure that organizes research findings into logical sections and presents ideas and thoughts more coherently for readers.

• The introduction  should state the research problem addressed in your study and highlight its significance in your research domain. A well-crafted introduction is a key element that will compel readers to delve further into the body of your manuscript.
• The materials and methods  section should include what you did and how you conducted your research – the tools, techniques, and instruments used, the data collection methods, and details about the lab environment. Ensuring clarity in this section when writing a manuscript is critical for success.
• The results  section must include complete details of the most significant findings in your study and indicate whether you were able to solve the problem outlined in the introduction. In your manuscript writing process, remember that using tables and figures will help to simplify complex data and results for readers.
• The discussion  section is where you evaluate your results in the context of existing published literature, analyze the implications and meaning of your findings, draw conclusions, and discuss the impact of your research.

You can learn more about the IMRaD structure and master the art of crafting a well-structured manuscript that impresses journal editors and readers in this  in-depth course for researchers , which is available free with a Researcher.Life subscription.

When writing a manuscript and putting the structure together, more often than not, researchers end up spending a lot of time writing the “meat” of the article (i.e., the Methods, Results, and Discussion sections). Consequently, little thought goes into the title and abstract, while keywords get even lesser attention.

The key purpose of the abstract and title is to provide readers with information about whether or not the results of your study are relevant to them. One of my top tips on how to write a manuscript would be to spend some time ensuring that the title is clear and unambiguous, since it is typically the first element a reader encounters. This makes it one of the most important steps to writing a manuscript. Moreover, in addition to attracting potential readers, your research paper’s title is your first chance to make a good impression on reviewers and journal editors.  A descriptive title and abstract will also make your paper stand out for the reader, who will be drawn in if they know exactly what you are presenting. In manuscript writing, remember that the more specific and accurate the title, the more chances of the manuscript being found and cited. Learn the dos and don’ts of drafting an effective title with the help of  this comprehensive handbook for authors , which is also available on the Researcher.Life platform.

The title and the abstract together provide readers with a quick summary of the manuscript and offer a brief glimpse into your research and its scientific implications. The abstract must contain the main premise of your research and the questions you seek to answer. Often, the abstract might be the only part of the manuscript that is read by busy editors, therefore, it should represent a concise version of your complete manuscript. The practice of placing published research papers behind a paywall means many of the database searching software programs will only scan the abstract and titles of the article to determine if the document is relevant to the search keywords the reader is using. Therefore, when writing a manuscript, it is important to write the abstract in a way that ensures both the readers and search engines will be able to find and decide if your research is relevant to their study 2 .

It would not be wrong to say that the title, abstract and keywords operate in a manner comparable to a chain reaction. Once the keywords have helped people find the research paper and an effective title has successfully captured and drawn the readers’ attention, it is up to the abstract of the research paper to further trigger the readers’ interest and maintain their curiosity. This functional advantage alone serves to make an abstract an indispensable component within the research paper format 3 that deserves your complete attention when writing a manuscript.

As you proceed with the steps to writing a manuscript, keep in mind the recommended paper length and mould the structure of your manuscript taking into account the specific guidelines of the journal you are submitting to. Most scientific journals have evolved a distinctive style, structure, and organization. One of the top tips for writing a manuscript would be to use concise sentences and simple straightforward language in a consistent manner throughout the manuscript to convey the details of your research.

Once all the material necessary for submission has been put together, go through the manuscript with a fresh mind so that you can identify errors and gaps. According to Peter Thrower, Editor-in-Chief of  Carbon , one of the top reasons for manuscript rejection is poor language comprehension. Incorrect usage of words, grammar and spelling errors, and flaws in sentence construction are certain to lead to rejection. Authors also often overlook checks to ensure a coherent transition between sections when writing a manuscript. Proofreading is, therefore, a must before submitting your manuscript for publication. Double-check the data and figures and read the manuscript out loud – this helps to weed out possible grammatical errors.

You could request colleagues or fellow researchers to go through your manuscript before submission but, if they are not experts in the same field, they may miss out on errors. In such cases, you may want to consider using professional academic editing services to help you improve sentence structure, grammar, word choice, style, logic and flow to create a polished manuscript that has a 24% greater chance of journal acceptance 4.

Once you are done writing a manuscript as per your target journal, we recommend doing a  comprehensive set of submission readiness checks  to ensure your paper is structurally sound, complete with all the relevant sections, and is devoid of language errors. Most importantly, you need to check for any accidental or unintentional plagiarism – i.e., not correctly citing, paraphrasing or quoting another’s work – which is considered a copyright infringement by the journal, can not only lead to rejection, but also stir up trouble for you and cause irreversible damage to your reputation and career. Also make sure you have all the ethical declarations in place when writing a manuscript, such as conflicts of interest and compliance approvals for studies involving human or animal participants.

To conclude, whenever you find yourself wondering – how to write a manuscript for publication – make sure you check the following points:

• Is your research paper complete, optimized and submission ready?
• Have all authors agreed the content of the submitted manuscript?
• Is your paper aligned with your target journals publication policies?
• Have you created a winning submission package, with all the necessary details?
• Does it include a persuasive cover letter that showcases your research?

Writing a manuscript and getting your work published is an important step in your career as it introduces your research to a wide audience. If you follow our simple manuscript writing guide, you will have the base to create a winning manuscript, with a great chance at acceptance. If you face any hurdles or need support along the way, be sure to explore these  bite-sized learning modules on research writing , designed by researchers, for researchers. And once you have mastered the tips for writing a research paper, and crafting a great submission package, use the comprehensive AI-assisted manuscript evaluation  to avoid errors that lead to desk rejection and optimize your paper for submission to your target journal.

• Helen Eassom, 5 Options to Consider After Article Rejection. The Wiley Network. Retrieved from  https://www.wiley.com/network/researchers/submission-and-navigating-peer-review/5-options-to-consider-after-article-rejection
• Jeremy Dean Chapnick, The abstract and title page. AME Medical Journal, Vol 4, 2019. Retrieved from  http://amj.amegroups.com/article/view/4965/html
• Velany Rodrigues, How to write an effective title and abstract and choose appropriate keywords. Editage Insights, 2013. Retrieved from  https://www.editage.com/insights/how-to-write-an-effective-title-and-abstract-and-choose-appropriate-keywords
• New Editage Report Shows That Pre-Submission Language Editing Can Improve Acceptance Rates of Manuscripts Written by Non-Native English-Speaking Researchers. PR Newswire, 2019. Retrieved from  https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/new-editage-report-shows-that-pre-submission-language-editing-can-improve-acceptance-rates-of-manuscripts-written-by-non-native-english-speaking-researchers-300833765.html#https%3A%2F%2Fwww.prnewswire.com%3A443

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Writing a journal manuscript

Publishing your results is a vital step in the research lifecycle and in your career as a scientist. Publishing papers is necessary to get your work seen by the scientific community, to exchange your ideas globally and to ensure you receive the recognition for your results. The following information is designed to help you write the best paper possible by providing you with points to consider, from your background reading and study design to structuring your manuscript and figure preparation.

By the end of the tutorial you should know on how to:

• prepare prior to starting your research
• structure your manuscript and what to include in each section
• get the most out of your tables and figures so that they clearly represent your most important results.

You will also have the opportunity to test your learning by completing a quiz at the end.

Guide to writing and publishing a scientific manuscript: Part 1—The structure

• Open access
• Published: 21 December 2021
• Volume 24 , pages 117–119, ( 2022 )

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• Ian G. Stiell   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-2583-6408 1 , 2

For the Canadian EM Writing Group

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Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.

Introduction

Writing a scientific manuscript for a peer-reviewed medical journal can be a frustrating but ultimately very satisfying process. Benefits for the authors include the ability to share the results of their project with a large audience and the opportunity to change practice, the satisfaction of completing a challenging scholarly endeavor, and the recognition of your institution in terms of advancement and/or compensation. Those who have not yet written a scientific manuscript may not appreciate how long and intensive the journey can be. The goal of this guide is to offer tried and true, step by step, recommendations on how to simplify the writing process and increase the chances of successful publication. Variations on these tips have been presented nationally and internationally and have been the basis for authoring or co-authoring hundreds of papers as well as for mentoring many learners in the Canadian emergency medicine community. Part 1 will address the structure or anatomy of a manuscript and Part 2 will look at the process of writing and dealing with journals.

Specific sections

Example manuscript.

See online appendix.

Tables and figures

Generally, these should be finalized before writing the Results and Discussion sections.

These should be presented sequentially as cited in the text, first the Tables then Figures, at the end of the manuscript or in a separate document. See online appendix

The typesetter will determine their actual position in the published paper.

Titles should be short but self-explanatory, such that the Tables and Figures stand alone without the reader having to go back to the text.

For clinical journals, we suggest making the Tables and Figures easy to read :

round to one decimal where possible.

give only percentages without counts when there are multiple columns .

keep headings brief and use footnotes to explain terms and abbreviations.

Avoid use of p-values except for the primary outcomes; focus on differences and CIs.

When reporting on socio-demographic characteristics, use terms that are inclusive, describe diversity, and considerate of marginalized populations.

Most journals limit the number of Tables and Figures such that some may have to be moved to the online appendix.

Figures or graphs should be specifically prepared with simple lines for publication; do not use 3-D or PowerPoint slides.

Title should only give design if strong, e.g., randomized trial, systematic review, meta-analysis; avoid “retrospective” or “chart review” as these terms may devalue your paper.

A few journals may insist on giving the design in the title

Author Information , names, affiliations.

Disclaimers, e.g., findings represent the work of the authors and not their institution.

Sources of Support , grants, other funding.

Word count , text only excluding abstract and tables.

Keywords , 3–5 commonly used terms.

Other sections may be placed elsewhere in the manuscript:

Disclosures of conflicts and relationships, usually given on the ICJME form.

Acknowledgements of non-authors: research staff, clinicians.

Author contributions .

Adhere to the structured format and word count required by the specific journal.

Common subheadings are: Introduction, Methods, Results, Conclusion.

Use only standard abbreviations in the abstract and main text; non-standard abbreviations can be confusing to readers and reviewers.

Standard abbreviations should be introduced at the first use.

Examples of standard abbreviations are ED, CPR, CT, ECG.

Examples of non-standard abbreviations to be avoided include: LOS, SRS, IND, CCLS, RCSA.

ICMJE recommends placing clinical trial registration number at the end of the abstract.

Should be brief and no more than 3 paragraphs .

Paragraph 1: definition, epidemiology, and importance of the health-care problem .

Paragraph 2: key studies and knowledge gap to be addressed.

Paragraph 3: Goal and specific objectives of the paper and how the gap will be addressed.

For educational articles , the approach should be grounded in or framed within educational theory or principles

Authors should be aware of and generally follow accepted reporting guidelines , based upon the study type whether clinical trial, systematic review, observational study, etc.

These are well presented on the EQUATOR website [ 1 ].

A few journals require completion and submission of the relevant checklist.

Use standard subheadings : Study Design, Study Setting, Participants, Interventions (if any), Outcome Measures, Data Collection, Data Analysis and Sample Size.

Use “Research Questions” in Qualitative research .

“Health records review” is preferable to “retrospective chart review.”

Indicate Research Ethics Board approval or waiver, usually at end of Study Participants.

Educational research often involves one of many different quantitative, qualitative, or synthesis research approaches.

Generally, one paragraph for each Table and Figure.

Aim for brevity by reporting only important or interesting findings; do not repeat everything from the Tables.

In the text, give percentages and the number from which the percentage was calculated.

e.g., “12.1% of 410 participants…”

Avoid starting a sentence with a number.

e.g., use “Of all subjects, 3.1% were…”; not “3.1% of subjects were….”

We suggest using words for spelling out numerals 1–10 (e.g., “three”) and numerals above that.

This is the section that many authors struggle with ; we strongly recommend using the paragraphs described below.

We also encourage use of subheadings which will aid reviewers and readers, even though most journals do not require them.

All subheadings are usually one paragraph maximum except Previous Studies.

1. Interpretation. Highlight the main findings without repeating numbers and present the take home messages.

2. Previous Studies. Discuss how your findings compare to prior studies, trying to emphasize what is unique.

3. Strengths and Limitations. Discuss methodological strengths and weaknesses, trying to mitigate limitations.

4. Clinical Implications. Be explicit in how your findings can impact and improve care, either at the patient or the system level.

5. Research Implications. Suggest future directions of enquiry and knowledge gaps.

6. Conclusion. Highlight your unique findings in this important section; state explicitly how your study can improve care; align with Abstract conclusion.

Conclusions must not reach beyond the study findings.

Never, ever conclude by saying “future research required” as that immediately tells reviewers and readers that your findings are not meaningful.

Educational papers typically link interpretation and the existing literature together (rather than as separate paragraphs).

Always use reference software such as EndNote, Mendeley, or others.

Most medical journals use the Vancouver style , citing references with Arabic numbers in the text and providing a list at the end [ 2 ].

Equator Network Reporting Guidelines United Kingdom: UK EQUATOR Centre. https://www.equator-network.org/reporting-guidelines/ . Accessed 1 Nov 2021.

Vancouver Style Reference Guide Toronto: The Michner Institute of Education at UHN. https://michener.ca/students/library/referencing-writing-help/ . Accessed 1 Nov 2021.

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Acknowledgements

We thank Angela Marcantonio, Jennifer Brinkhurst, and Catherine Clement for assistance with preparation of the manuscript. For the Canadian EM Writing Group: Paul Atkinson, Peter Cameron, Alix Carter, Warren Cheung, Ryan Chuang, Kerstin de Wit, Quynh Doan, Ian Drennan, Debra Eagles, Andrew Hall, Ariel Hendin, Grant Innes, Eddy Lang, Patrick McLane, Andrew McRae, Catherine Patocka, Jeffrey J. Perry, Naveen Poonai, Venkatesh Thiruganasambandamoorthy, Daniel Ting, Christian Vaillancourt, Robert Woods, Krishan Yadav, Peter Zed.

There was no funding for this project. Dr. Stiell is the Editor-in-Chief of the Canadian Journal of Emergency Medicine and the contents of this manuscript reflect the opinions of the authors and not those of the Canadian Association of Emergency Physicians.

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Department of Emergency Medicine, University of Ottawa, Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, Ottawa, ON, Canada

Ian G. Stiell

Clinical Epidemiology Unit, F657, The Ottawa Hospital, 1053 Carling Avenue, Ottawa, ON, K1Y 4E9, Canada

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• Paul Atkinson
• , Peter Cameron
• , Alix Carter
• , Warren Cheung
• , Ryan Chuang
• , Kerstin Wit
• , Quynh Doan
• , Ian Drennan
• , Debra Eagles
• , Andrew Hall
• , Ariel Hendin
• , Grant Innes
• , Eddy Lang
• , Patrick McLane
• , Andrew McRae
• , Catherine Patocka
• , Jeffrey J. Perry
• , Naveen Poonai
• , Venkatesh Thiruganasambandamoorthy
• , Daniel Ting
• , Christian Vaillancourt
• , Robert Woods
• , Krishan Yadav
•  & Peter Zed

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Ian G. Stiell .

Additional information

The members of the Canadian EM Writing Group are listed in acknowledgements.

Supplementary Information

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

Supplementary file1 (DOCX 130 KB)

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Stiell, I.G., For the Canadian EM Writing Group. Guide to writing and publishing a scientific manuscript: Part 1—The structure. Can J Emerg Med 24 , 117–119 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s43678-021-00241-5

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Received : 17 November 2021

Accepted : 19 November 2021

Published : 21 December 2021

Issue Date : March 2022

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s43678-021-00241-5

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What Is A Manuscript And How Do You Craft One?

Crafting a manuscript is a journey of creativity, dedication, and storytelling prowess. In literature , a manuscript is more than just a collection of words on paper; it is a carefully sculpted piece of art that brings ideas, emotions, and narratives to life. It is a widely studied literature course in universities in Canada . This blog will guide you to what is a manuscript, its importance, and how to write one. Let’s explore further. 

Table of Contents

What Is A Manuscript

A manuscript is an author’s original text before it undergoes the process of publication. It is the raw, unfiltered expression of an author’s thoughts, ideas, and creativity, often taking the form of a novel, short story, essay, or any other written work. Unlike the final printed or published version, a manuscript provides a glimpse into the author’s initial vision and the evolution of their work.

However, a manuscript is more than just words on paper. It is a testament to the author’s commitment to their story, characters, and the art of writing itself. From the carefully chosen words to the deep plot structures, a manuscript is a canvas upon which literary dreams are painted.

Importance Of Crafting A Manuscript

Crafting a manuscript is a crucial step in the journey of a writer. It involves meticulous planning, thoughtful execution, and a deep understanding of the craft of storytelling. Creating a manuscript allows writers to explore their creativity, develop unique voices, and share their perspectives.

Moreover, the importance of crafting a manuscript extends to the impact it can have on readers. A well-crafted manuscript can transport readers to different worlds, evoke emotions, and provoke thoughts. It serves as a medium through which authors can connect with their audience on a profound level, leaving a lasting impression and fostering a love for literature.

Components Of A Manuscript

A manuscript is the original draft of a writer’s work before it undergoes the editing and publishing process. It is the author’s unfiltered expression, captured in words and laid out on pages, embodying the essence of their literary vision.

The components of a manuscript go beyond mere words. They include the structure, organization, and thematic elements that give life to the story. From the opening lines that captivate readers to the meticulously crafted characters and the development of a compelling plot, each component contributes to the overall tapestry of the manuscript.

Sections such as dialogue, narration, and description play pivotal roles in shaping the reader’s experience. Furthermore, formatting considerations, such as font, spacing, and page layout, are essential elements that contribute to the overall aesthetic and readability of the manuscript. Understanding these components is crucial for writers seeking to convey their ideas effectively and engage their audience from start to finish.

Different Types Of Manuscripts

Manuscripts come in various forms, each tailored to different genres, purposes, and styles of writing. Understanding these types is instrumental in crafting a manuscript that aligns with the author’s creative vision and the expectations of the intended audience.

Fiction Manuscripts

These are narratives born from the author’s imagination, ranging from novels and novellas to short stories. Fiction manuscripts allow writers to explore diverse worlds, create intriguing characters, and weave compelling plots that captivate readers.

Non-Fiction Manuscripts

Rooted in reality, non-fiction manuscripts encompass a broad spectrum of genres, including memoirs, biographies, essays, and informational books. These manuscripts often require reading extensive research papers , a keen eye for detail, and the ability to present factual information engagingly.

Poetry Manuscripts

Poetry, with its unique rhythm and artistic expression, is often compiled into manuscript form. Poetry manuscripts showcase the poet’s ability to evoke emotions through carefully chosen words, imagery, and poetic devices.

Screenplays And Play Manuscripts

In visual storytelling, manuscripts take the form of screenplays for films and television or scripts for plays. These manuscripts involve a specialized format to convey dialogue, stage directions, and visual elements essential for performance.

How To Write A Manuscript

Writing a manuscript is a multi-faceted process involving careful planning, thoughtful execution, and a deep connection to one’s creative instincts. 

Pre-Writing Phase

Before the ink hits the paper or the keys are tapped, the pre-writing phase sets the stage for a successful manuscript. During this stage, writers engage in crucial activities that shape the direction, tone, and substance of their work.

Research And Planning

Research is the cornerstone of a well-crafted manuscript. Whether writing fiction or non-fiction, thorough research adds depth, authenticity, and credibility to the narrative. In this phase, writers dive into topics related to their manuscript, gathering information and gaining insights that will inform and enrich their storytelling.

This might involve researching historical periods, cultural aspects, or specific locations for fiction writers to ensure accuracy and vivid world-building. Non-fiction authors delve into data, conduct interviews, or explore various perspectives to present a well-rounded and informed narrative.

Planning, hand in hand with research, is equally vital. Outlining the structure of the manuscript, creating character profiles, and sketching the plot are essential steps. This process helps writers establish a roadmap, preventing aimless wandering during the writing phase and ensuring a cohesive and engaging final product.

Choosing A Genre Or Style

Choosing a genre or style is a defining moment in the manuscript crafting process. It shapes not only the content but also the tone, narrative techniques, and audience expectations. Writers must consider their own passions, strengths, and the type of story they wish to tell when making this decision.

Genres range from romance and mystery to science fiction and fantasy, each with its conventions and expectations. Non-fiction writers may choose a genre, such as memoir, biography, or self-help, based on the nature of their message and the audience they aim to reach.

Style encompasses the author’s unique voice, narrative approach, and the mood they wish to convey. It may involve deciding on the perspective (first-person, third-person), the tone (formal, informal), and the overall atmosphere of the manuscript.

Choosing a genre or style sets the tone for the entire writing process, guiding decisions on character development, plot structure, and even the language used. Writers who understand their chosen genre can better tailor their manuscript to resonate with their target audience.

Writing Phase

With the groundwork laid in the pre-writing phase, writers transition into the heart of the manuscript crafting process: the writing phase. This is where creativity takes center stage, and words start to flow onto the page. 

Developing A Strong Outline

An effective outline, just like a thesis statement , is the compass that guides a writer through the labyrinth of their manuscript. It serves as a roadmap, providing direction and structure to the narrative. Creating a strong outline before diving into the actual writing can prevent common pitfalls such as plot holes, inconsistent pacing, and meandering storylines.

• Introduction and Setup: Clearly define the setting, characters, and the central conflict of your story. Introduce key elements that will set the stage for the unfolding narrative.
• Plot Points and Developments: Outline the major events, twists, and character arcs. Consider the rising action, climax, and resolution to maintain a well-paced and engaging storyline.
• Character Profiles: Develop detailed character profiles for the main and supporting characters. Understand their motivations, strengths, flaws, and how they contribute to the overall narrative.
• Themes and Messages: Identify the themes or messages you want to convey through your manuscript. Integrating these elements cohesively adds depth and resonance to your storytelling.
• Chapter Breakdowns: If applicable, plan the structure of individual chapters. Consider the rhythm of your narrative, balancing moments of tension with quieter, reflective scenes.
• Transitions and Flow: Ensure smooth transitions between scenes and chapters. A well-organized outline helps maintain a logical flow, keeping readers engaged from start to finish.

Drafting Techniques And Tips

Once the outline is in place, writers embark on the exhilarating journey of drafting. This is the stage where the manuscript starts to take shape, and creativity is given free rein. Here are some drafting techniques and tips to enhance the writing process:

• Free Writing: Allow yourself to write freely without overthinking. Let ideas flow, even if they seem imperfect at first. You can always refine and edit in later drafts.
• Set Writing Goals: Establish daily or weekly writing goals to maintain momentum. Consistent progress, even in small increments, contributes to the completion of your manuscript.
• Embrace Imperfection: The first draft is not meant to be flawless. Embrace imperfections and resist the urge to edit excessively during the drafting phase. Focus on getting your ideas on paper.
• Experiment with Style: Explore different narrative styles, tones, and perspectives. Don’t be afraid to experiment with your writing voice to find what resonates best with your story.
• Revision Notes: If you encounter areas that need improvement while drafting, make revision notes rather than interrupting the flow. Address these in subsequent drafts.
• Seek Feedback Sparingly: While drafting, limit external feedback to avoid distractions. Once you have a complete draft, seek constructive feedback to refine and enhance your manuscript.

Revision Phase

The revision phase is a crucial stage in the manuscript crafting process, where the raw material of the first draft transforms into a polished work of art. In this section, we’ll delve into two essential components of the revision phase— the importance of editing and proofreading, and the valuable practice of seeking feedback from others.

• Editing: This involves a comprehensive manuscript review for structural, stylistic, and thematic improvements. Editors scrutinize the overall flow of the narrative, character development, dialogue, and adherence to the established outline. They may suggest changes to enhance clarity, tighten pacing, and elevate the overall quality of the writing.
• Proofreading: Once the editing phase is complete, proofreading eliminates grammatical errors, typos, and inconsistencies. It is the final meticulous examination that ensures the manuscript is error-free. Attention to detail is paramount during proofreading, as even minor oversights can diminish the professional polish of the work.

Seeking Feedback From Others

Writing is often a solitary endeavour, but the input of others is invaluable during the revision phase. External feedback provides fresh perspectives, identifies blind spots, and highlights areas that may require further attention. Here are key considerations when seeking feedback:

• Diverse Perspectives: Gather feedback from a variety of sources, including fellow writers, beta readers, or writing groups. Diverse perspectives can offer insights that a single viewpoint may overlook.
• Constructive Criticism: Embrace constructive criticism as a tool for improvement. While positive feedback is uplifting, constructive criticism helps identify areas for refinement, contributing to the overall growth of the manuscript.
• Specific Questions: When seeking feedback, provide specific questions or prompts to guide readers’ responses. This ensures that you receive targeted insights on areas you may be uncertain about.
• Open-Mindedness: Approach feedback with an open mind. It’s natural to feel attached to your work, but being receptive to suggestions fosters a collaborative and iterative process that leads to a stronger manuscript.
• Implementing Feedback Thoughtfully: Not all feedback requires immediate incorporation. Evaluate the suggestions received and implement changes thoughtfully, considering how they align with your artistic vision for the manuscript.

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Genre-Specific Considerations

The manuscript crafting process varies significantly based on the genre of the work.

Creating Compelling Characters

The heart of any fiction manuscript lies in its characters. Compelling and well-developed characters breathe life into the narrative, capturing the readers’ imagination and fostering emotional connections. Consider the following when crafting characters:

• Depth and Complexity: Develop characters with depth, complexity, and relatability. Explore their backgrounds, motivations, and internal conflicts to create multidimensional personalities.
• Arcs and Growth: Characters should undergo meaningful arcs and growth throughout the story. Whether it’s overcoming challenges, changing perspectives, or evolving relationships, character development is essential for reader engagement.
• Distinctive Voices: Ensure that each character has a distinctive voice and perspective. This not only adds authenticity but also helps readers differentiate between characters, contributing to a richer reading experience.

Building A Riveting Plot

A captivating plot is the backbone of a fiction manuscript, keeping readers eagerly turning pages. Crafting a compelling narrative involves careful consideration of the story’s structure, pacing, and unexpected twists:

• Story Structure: Outline the key elements of your plot, including the introduction, rising action, climax, falling action, and resolution. A well-structured plot provides a framework for a seamless and engaging reading experience.
• Pacing: Balance the pacing of your narrative to maintain tension and interest. Alternate between moments of action and reflection, allowing readers to absorb the unfolding events while staying connected to the characters.
• Conflict and Resolution: Introduce conflicts that resonate with your characters and propel the story forward. The resolution should be satisfying and provide closure while leaving room for lingering questions or anticipation.
• Twists and Turns: Incorporate unexpected twists and turns to keep readers on the edge of their seats. Surprise elements add excitement and prevent the narrative from becoming predictable.

Research And Fact-Checking

Non-fiction manuscripts rely heavily on accurate information and a thorough understanding of the subject matter. Research and fact-checking are paramount to establishing credibility and delivering a compelling narrative:

• Extensive Research: Dive deep into your chosen topic, using a variety of reputable sources. Verify information through multiple channels to ensure accuracy and completeness.
• Citation and Attribution: Properly cite sources and provide attribution for data, quotes, and references. This not only upholds ethical standards but also allows readers to explore the material further.
• Interviews and Expert Insights: If applicable, conduct interviews with experts or individuals relevant to your subject. First-hand accounts and expert insights enhance the authenticity and depth of your non-fiction manuscript.

Organizing Information Effectively

Non-fiction manuscripts often deal with a wealth of information, requiring thoughtful organization to make the content accessible and engaging for readers:

• Clear Structure: Develop a clear and logical structure for your manuscript. This could include chronological order, thematic organization, or a problem-solution framework, depending on the nature of your content.
• Subheadings and Signposts: Use subheadings and signposts to guide readers through the content. This aids in navigation and allows readers to locate specific information easily.
• Visual Elements: Incorporate visual elements such as graphs, charts, or images to enhance understanding. Visual aids can break up dense text and clarify complex concepts.
• Transitions: Ensure smooth transitions between different sections or topics. Thoughtful transitions help maintain a coherent flow and prevent readers from feeling disoriented.

Tips For Manuscript Success

As the manuscript crafting process unfolds, certain tips can significantly contribute to the success of your work. From setting realistic goals to overcoming obstacles like writer’s block, these insights will guide you through the thorough journey of bringing your manuscript to fruition.

Tip 1: Setting Realistic Goals

• Clear Milestones: Break down the writing process into clear milestones. Setting achievable goals for research, drafting, and revisions ensures steady and measurable progress.
• Realistic Timelines: Be mindful of your schedule and commitments. Establish realistic timelines that align with your availability, allowing for a sustainable writing routine without overwhelming yourself.
• Flexibility: While goals provide structure, be flexible in adapting to unexpected challenges or inspirations. Allow your manuscript to evolve organically, even if it means adjusting initial plans.

Tip 2: Overcoming Writer’s Block

• Change of Environment: Move to a different writing space or take a break outdoors. A change of scenery can stimulate creativity and break the monotony that often leads to writer’s block.
• Freewriting: Set aside dedicated time for freewriting. Put pen to paper or fingers to the keyboard without any specific goal, allowing thoughts to flow freely. This can help overcome mental blocks and spark inspiration.
• Focus on a Different Section: If a particular section is causing frustration, temporarily shift your focus to another part of the manuscript. This can reignite enthusiasm and create a sense of accomplishment.

Tip 3: Staying Motivated Throughout The Process

• Celebrate Small Wins: Acknowledge and celebrate small achievements, whether it’s completing a challenging chapter or reaching a word count milestone. Recognizing progress boosts motivation.
• Connect with Fellow Writers: Join writing groups or forums to connect with other writers. Sharing experiences, tips, and encouragement fosters a sense of community and accountability.
• Visualize the End Goal: Envision the satisfaction of completing your manuscript and the potential impact it can have on readers. Keeping the end goal in mind serves as a powerful motivator during challenging moments.

Frequently Asked Questions

What is a manuscript.

A manuscript is a handwritten or typed document, typically the original draft of a book, article, or document before it is published. It serves as the author’s work in progress, containing the text before final edits or printing.

What is a manuscript in research?

In research, a manuscript is a written document presenting original findings, methodologies, and conclusions of a study. It undergoes peer review before potential publication in academic journals, contributing to the dissemination of scientific knowledge.

What is a book manuscript?

A book manuscript is the complete, written text of an author’s work submitted for publication. It encompasses the entire content of a book, including chapters, sections, and any supplementary materials, serving as the basis for editorial and publishing processes.

What is a manga manuscript?

A manga manuscript is the original hand-drawn or digitally created work submitted by a mangaka (manga artist) to a publisher. It includes the detailed illustrations and dialogue that form the basis for the production of a manga series or volume.

What is a manuscript for a journal?

A manuscript for a journal is a written document containing original research findings, methodology, analysis, and conclusions. It follows the journal’s guidelines and undergoes peer review, aiming for publication to contribute to scholarly discourse within a specific academic or scientific field.

What is a manuscript page?

A manuscript page is a single sheet or leaf of a handwritten or typed document, often containing text, illustrations, or other content. In publishing, it refers to the formatted page of a manuscript submitted for review, editing, or publication.

What is a novel manuscript?

A novel manuscript is the complete written text of a novel submitted by an author for publication. It includes the entire narrative, chapters, and other elements, serving as the basis for editorial processes before the novel is prepared for printing and distribution.

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Writing a journal manuscript

Publishing your results is a vital step in the research lifecycle and in your career as a scientist. When you publish your results as a journal article, you make it possible for the scientific community to see it. Publishing your work allows you to get recognition for your results, and to exchange your ideas with the global scientific community. 

We have designed this tutorial to help you write the best article possible by providing you with points to consider, from your background reading and study design to manuscript structuring and figure preparation.

By the end of the tutorial you should know on how to:

• Prepare prior to starting your research
• Structure your manuscript and what to include in each section
• Get the most out of your tables and figures so that they clearly represent your most important results.

You will also have the opportunity to test your learning with quizzes as we go.

Writing a Journal Manuscript

Click here to begin the self-guided tutorial (registration required). 

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If you feel that you would like some further support with writing your paper and understanding the peer review process, Springer Nature offer some services which may be of help.

• Nature Research Editing Service offers high quality  English language and scientific editing. During language editing , Editors will improve the English in your manuscript to ensure the meaning is clear and identify problems that require your review. With Scientific Editing experienced development editors will improve the scientific presentation of your research in your manuscript and cover letter, if supplied. They will also provide you with a report containing feedback on the most important issues identified during the edit, as well as journal recommendations.
• Our affiliates American Journal Experts also provide English language editing* as well as other author services that may support you in preparing your manuscript.
• We provide both online and face-to-face training for researchers on all aspects of the manuscript writing process.

* Please note, using an editing service is neither a requirement nor a guarantee of acceptance for publication. 

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Essential Guide to Manuscript Writing for Academic Dummies: An Editor's Perspective

Affiliations.

• 1 Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Quality Assurance Unit, College of Medicine, King Saud bin Abdulaziz University for Health Sciences (KSAU-HS), King Abdullah International Medical Research Center (KAIMRC), Ministry of National Guard Health Affairs (MNGHA), King Abdulaziz Medical City, Jeddah 21423, Saudi Arabia.
• 2 Molecular Diseases & Diagnostics Division, Infinity Biochemistry Pvt. Ltd, Sajad Abad, Chattabal, Srinagar, Kashmir 190010, India.
• PMID: 36092536
• PMCID: PMC9458406
• DOI: 10.1155/2022/1492058

Writing an effective manuscript is one of the pivotal steps in the successful closure of the research project, and getting it published in a peer-reviewed and indexed journal adds to the academic profile of a researcher. Writing and publishing a scientific paper is a tough task that researchers and academicians must endure in staying relevant in the field. Success in translating the benchworks into the scientific content, which is effectively communicated within the scientific field, is used in evaluating the researcher in the current academic world. Writing is a highly time-consuming and skill-oriented process that requires familiarity with the numerous publishing steps, formatting rules, and ethical guidelines currently in vogue in the publishing industry. In this review, we have attempted to include the essential information that novice authors in their early careers need to possess, to be able to write a decent first scientific manuscript ready for submission in the journal of choice. This review is unique in providing essential guidance in a simple point-wise manner in conjunction with easy-to-understand illustrations to familiarize novice researchers with the anatomy of a basic scientific manuscript.

Copyright © 2022 Syed Sameer Aga and Saniya Nissar.

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Conflict of interest statement

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Types of manuscripts based on…

Types of manuscripts based on complexity of content and context.

Generalized anatomy of manuscript based…

Generalized anatomy of manuscript based on IMRAD format.

Three important contents of the…

Three important contents of the title page—title, abstract, and keywords.

Two major types of abstract—structured…

Two major types of abstract—structured and unstructured. Structured abstracts are piecemealed into five…

Three C concept followed while…

Three C concept followed while writing the manuscript.

Funnel-down scheme followed while writing…

Funnel-down scheme followed while writing the introduction section of manuscript, moving from broader…

Methods and the seven areas…

Methods and the seven areas which it should exhaustively describe.

Interdependence between methods and results…

Interdependence between methods and results of the manuscript.

Pyramid scheme followed while writing…

Pyramid scheme followed while writing the discussion section of manuscript, moving from the…

Crux of the conclusion section.

A Google Scholar screenshot of…

A Google Scholar screenshot of different styles of formatting of references.

An overview of the journal's…

An overview of the journal's editorial process.

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A Guide on How to Write a Manuscript for a Research Paper

This article teaches how to write a manuscript for a research paper and recommended practices to produce a well-written manuscript.

For scientists, publishing a research paper is a huge accomplishment; they typically spend a large amount of time researching the appropriate subject, the right material, and, most importantly, the right place to publish their hard work. To be successful in publishing a research paper, it must be well-written and meet all of the high standards.

Although there is no quick and easy method to get published, there are certain manuscript writing strategies that can help earn the awareness and visibility you need to get it published.

In this Mind The Graph step-by-step tutorial, we give practical directions on how to write a manuscript for a research paper, to increase your research as well as your chances of publishing.

What is the manuscript of a research paper?

A manuscript is a written, typed, or word-processed document submitted to a publisher by the researcher. Researchers meticulously create manuscripts to communicate their unique ideas and fresh findings to both the scientific community and the general public. 

Overall, the manuscript must be outstanding and deeply represent your professional attitude towards work; it must be complete, rationally structured, and accurate. To convey the results to the scientific community while complying with ethical rules, scientific articles must use a specified language and structure.

Furthermore, the standards for title page information, abstract structure, reference style, font size, line spacing, margins, layout, and paragraph style must also be observed for effective publishing. This is a time-consuming and challenging technique, but it is worthwhile in the end.

How to structure a manuscript?

The first step in knowing how to write a manuscript for a research paper is understanding how the structure works. 

Title or heading

A poorly chosen title may deter a potential reader from reading deeper into your manuscript. When an audience comes across your manuscript, the first thing they notice is the title, keep in mind that the title you choose might impact the success of your work.

Abstracts are brief summaries of your paper. The fundamental concept of your research and the issues you intend to answer should be contained within the framework of the abstract. The abstract is a concise summary of the research that should be considered a condensed version of the entire article.

Introduction

The purpose of the research is disclosed in the body of the introduction. Background information is provided to explain why the study was conducted and the research’s development.

Methods and materials

The technical parts of the research have to be thoroughly detailed in this section. Transparency is required in this part of the research. Colleagues will learn about the methodology and materials you used to analyze your research, recreate it, and expand concepts further. 

This is the most important portion of the paper. You should provide your findings and data once the results have been thoroughly discussed. Use an unbiased point of view here; but leave the evaluation for your final piece, the conclusion.

Finally, explain why your findings are meaningful. This section allows you to evaluate your results and reflect on your process. Remember that conclusions are expressed in a succinct way using words rather than figures. The content presented in this section should solely be based on the research conducted.

The reference list contains information that readers may use to find the sources you mentioned in your research. Your reference page is at the end of your piece. Keep in mind that each publication has different submission criteria. For effective reference authentication, journal requirements should be followed.

Steps on how to write a manuscript for a research paper

It is not only about the format while writing a successful manuscript, but also about the correct strategy to stand out above other researchers trying to be published. Consider the following steps to a well-written manuscript:

1. Read the author’s guide

Many journals offer a Guide for Authors kind of document, which is normally printed yearly and is available online. In this Guide for Authors, you will discover thorough information on the journal’s interests and scope, as well as information regarding manuscript types and more in-depth instructions on how to do the right formatting to submit your research.

2. Pay special attention to the methods and materials section

The section on methods and materials is the most important part of the research. It should explain precisely what you observed in the research. This section should normally be less than 1,000 words long. The methods and materials used should be detailed enough that a colleague could reproduce the study.

3. Identify and describe your findings

The second most crucial aspect of your manuscript is the findings. After you’ve stated what you observed (methods and materials), you should go through what you discovered. Make a note to organize your findings such that they make sense without further explanation.

4. The research’s face and body

In this part you need to produce the face and body of your manuscript, so do it carefully and thoroughly. 

Ensure that the title page has all of the information required by the journal. The title page is the public face of your research and must be correctly structured to meet publication requirements. 

Write an introduction that explains why you carried out the research and why anybody should be interested in the results (ask yourself “so what?”). 

Concentrate on creating a clear and accurate reference page. As stated in step 1, you should read the author’s guide for the journal you intend to submit to thoroughly to ensure that your research reference page is correctly structured.

The abstract should be written just after the manuscript is finished. Follow the author’s guide and be sure to keep it under the word limit.

5. Rapid Rejection Criteria double-check

Now that you’ve completed the key aspects of your research, it’s time to double-check everything according to the Rapid Rejection Criteria. The “Rapid Rejection Criteria” are errors that lead to an instantaneous rejection. The criteria are:

• The answered question was not interesting enough
• The question has been satisfactorily answered before
• Wrong hypothesis
• The method cannot address the hypothesis
• Research is underpowered
• Contradictory manuscript
• The conclusion doesn’t support the data

Rewrite your manuscript now that you’ve finished it. Make yourself your fiercest critic. Consider reading the document loudly to yourself, keeping an ear out for any abrupt breaks in the logical flow or incorrect claims.

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How to Write a Successful Scientific Manuscript

Writing a scientific manuscript is an endeavor that challenges the best minds, yet it is very rewarding once the body of work comes to fruition. Researchers carefully draft manuscripts allowing them to share their original ideas and new discoveries with the scientific community as well as to the general population. A significant amount of time and effort is spent during the investigative stages conducting the required research before it is released into the public domain. Therefore, the manuscript drafted to present this research must be thorough, logically presented, and factual. Scientific manuscripts must adhere to a specific language and format to communicate the results to the scientific community whilst adhering to ethical guidelines. When completed the final written product will allow colleagues to debate and reflect on the newly minted work embedded in the manuscript.

Organization

Scientific manuscripts are organized in a logical format, which fits specific criteria as determined by the scientific community. This methodology has been standardized in journals which communicate information to those in the field being discussed. Since the researcher has a storyline he or she is trying to transmit, it must be clear and upfront on the exact question and or problem that his research answers. Readers of the manuscript will be energized to review this work when its content is spelled out early in the paper. A well-written manuscript has the following components included: a clear title, abstract, introductory paragraph, methods and materials section, discussion of results, conclusion and a list of references. Each component of a journal article should follow a logical sequence, which members of the science community have become accustomed.

Related: Need some tips on manuscript drafting? Check out this section today!

Structural Contents

Title or heading.

Titles are extremely important. A crisp detailed title is the first element an audience notices when encountering your manuscript. The significance of a title cannot be overstated in that it introduces your reader to the subject matter you intend to discuss in the next thousand or more words. A poorly formatted title could dissuade a potential reader from delving into your manuscript further. In addition, your paper is indexed in a certain manner, which search engine algorithms will track. To rise to the top of the search index, keywords should be emphasized. Thinking of the right title could determine the size of your audience and the eventual success of your work.

Abstracts are abbreviated versions of your manuscript. Contained within the abstract’s structure should be the major premise of your research and the questions you seek to answer. Also included in the context of the abstract is a brief summary of the methods taken to achieve your goals along with a short version of the results. The abstract may be the only part of the paper read, therefore, it should be considered a concise version of your complete manuscript.

Introduction

The Introduction amplifies certain aspects of the abstract. Within the body of the introduction, the rationale for the research is revealed. Background material is supplied indicating why the research performed is important along with the direction the research took. A brief summary (in a few sentences) discussing the technical aspects of the experimental approach utilized to reach the article’s stated conclusions is included here. Written well the introduction will influence readers to delve further into the body of the paper.

Methodology and Materials

In this section, the technical aspects of the research are described extensively. Clarity in this part of the manuscript is mandatory. Fellow researchers will glean from this section the methods and materials you utilized either to validate your work, reproduce it, and/or develop the concepts further. Detailed protocols are presented here, similar to a road map, explaining the experiments performed, agents or technologies used, and any biology involved. Statistical analysis and tests should be presented here. Do not approximate anything in this part of the manuscript. Suspicion may be cast in your direction questioning the validity of the research if too many approximations are detected.

Discussion of Results

This part of the manuscript may be considered its core. Elaboration on data generated, utilizing tables and graphs, communicating the essence of the research and the outcomes they generate. Once the results are given a lengthy discussion, it should follow by including the interpretation of data, implications of these findings, and potential future research to follow. Ambiguous findings and current controversies in this type of research should be analyzed and examined in this section.

Conclusions

This is the endpoint in the manuscript. Conclusions are written in a concise manner utilizing words not numbers. Information conveyed in this section should only be taken from the research performed. Do not place your references here. Full and complete interpretation of your findings in this part of the manuscript is imperative. Clarity of thought is also essential because misinterpretation of the results is always a possibility. Comparisons to similar work in your field may be discussed here. Absolutely avoid interpretation of your results that cannot be justified by the work performed.

Every journal has submission requirements. Journal guidelines should be followed for proper authentication of references. There exist several formats for reference creation. Familiarize yourself with them. In addition, the sequence of references listed should be in the order in which they appear in the research paper . A number, usually in parenthesis, follows the sentence where they are noted.

Production of a scientific manuscript is a necessity to introduce your research to a wide audience. The complexity of the research and the results generated must be written in a manner that is clear and concise, follows the current journal formats, and is verifiable. The guidelines embedded in this paper will help the researcher place his work in the best light possible. Never write anything that cannot be justified by the research performed. With these simple rules in mind, your scientific manuscript will be a success.

Thanks for the succinct guidance on successful scientific manuscript

I found that your notes are quite joined up! But my query is what should be the scientific content of a discussion section? what if our data are the pioneer?

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Research Manuscript Structure: Understanding Different Parts of a Manuscript

Writing a research manuscript and publishing it in reputed academic journals is an integral part of the research process. Yet, with rejection rates of top-tier journals ranging as high as 80%-95%, this is easier said than done. 1 Research manuscripts need to meet several key submission requirements to even be considered, this includes getting the structure of scientific papers right. However, most researchers find themselves feeling overwhelmed when it comes to writing a manuscript. The lack of formal training on writing a research manuscript, especially how to structure a manuscript effectively makes this a daunting task, especially for early-career researchers.

While there are no quick and easy shortcuts to writing a manuscript for publication, this article explains how researchers can sort their research under different sections and present their findings effectively in a well-structured research manuscript.

Structuring a research paper logically

Presenting research findings in a clear and structured way helps readers quickly understand your work’s significance and potential impact. Writing a manuscript that is worded well in simple English is imperative as you write for a global audience, many of which may not have English as the first language. Experts suggest following the standard and globally accepted IMRaD (Introduction, Methods, Results, and Discussion) structure for research manuscripts. The ideal length for a research manuscript can range from 25-40 pages depending on your journal, with specific lengths for each section. 2

Understanding the key parts of a manuscript 2,3

Breaking down your work into these clear parts of a manuscript allows you to organize your findings more coherently and ensure a logical flow, which makes your research manuscript more engaging for readers.

Introduction – Covers what are you studying and why (1.5-2 pages)

This is an important part of the research manuscript as itstates the purpose of your research and what you want to achieve, existing knowledge on the topic and its limitations, and the significance and usefulness of the work. The introduction should mention the research question, the rationale for the research study, and describe the theoretical framework used. It should also offer a background of the problem and what is known so far and explain how your research contributes to the subject by adding citations to support this view. Avoid adding too many or irrelevant citations here or you may risk losing the plot, which is a red flag for editors and reviewers.

Remember, the introduction must be a concise summary of the work being presented in the research manuscript; do not to go into extensive details at this point. Take care not to mix methods, results, discussion, or conclusion in the introduction section – it’s important to keep these parts of a manuscript separate to ensure a coherent and logical flow between sections.

Methodology – Covers how you conducted the study in about 2-3 pages

One of the most critical parts of the manuscript, the methods section is meant to highlight how the problem was studied and communicates the methods, procedures, and research tools used. Be sure to describe the methodology you followed to conduct the research simply, precisely, and completely. If you’re using a new method, include all the details required for others to reproduce it, but if you’re working with established methods, it is enough to summarize these with key references. Poor methodology, small sample size, incomplete statistical analysis are all reasons why reviewers recommend rejection of a research manuscript, so check and recheck this to ensure it is flawless.

Include accurate statistics and control experiments to ensure experiments are reproducible and use standard academic conventions for nomenclature, measurement units, and numbers. Avoid adding any comments, research results, or discussion points in this part of the manuscript. It’s a good idea to write the methods section in the same flow and order in which you did the research. Supplement the text with visuals like tables, figures, photographs, or infographics that convey complex data, but don’t duplicate the information in the text.

Results – Covers the main findings of your studying in about 6-8 pages

The results section is a key part of the manuscript and isdedicated to presenting the primary and secondary findings of your research study. While writing a manuscript, ensure you spend extra time and attention while drafting the results; after all, this is the most important part of your research manuscript and your entire research effort.

Share your main results as text and use tables and figures to present findings effectively (don’t explain the data again in text). Avoid generalizations and use actual data to explain the results in your research manuscript – for example, instead of saying temperature rose as we applied more pressure, say temperature rose by 10 degrees with a 20% increase in pressure. Be sure to highlight any unexpected findings but avoid using too many technical terms or jargon so it is easy for readers from other research disciplines and non-scientific backgrounds to understand. Most importantly, this part of the manuscript is reserved for your research findings so do not include references to previously published work here.

Discussion – Covers what your research findings mean in about 4-6 pages

This is a crucial part of a manuscript where you interpret the results of your research and showcase its significance. The discussion in your research manuscript is a chance to showcase (not reiterate or repeat) your research results and how they address the original question. Do not suddenly include new information, instead talk about the limitations, whether the data supports the hypothesis or is consistent with previous studies, or if the findings were unexpected.

You may choose to mention alternate ways to interpret the results but avoid interpretations that are not supported by your research findings. Finally, compare your work with previously published studies, highlight what is new and what further research will be required to answer questions raised by the results. A well-written discussion section is essential to help differentiate your work from existing studies, which is what makes it critical to get right.  

Conclusion – Covers learnings from the research study in one short para

Check your journal guidelines before writing the conclusion. For some journals, this is a separate section whereas in others it is the concluding part of the discussion part of the manuscript. This section of the research manuscript should explain the outcomes of the research in relation to the original objective, presenting it from global and specific perspectives. Avoid simply listing the results or repeating the abstract or introduction sections, provide a justification of your work and suggest further experiments and if any of these are in progress.  

Title & Abstract – Covers highlights of the research done

The title and abstract are what readers use to evaluate whether the information provided in the research manuscript is relevant enough for them to read and cite. This is true for editors and reviewers of your research manuscript as well. Spend some time thinking of an interesting title, one that is informative, concise, and unambiguous. Write a well-structured abstract that highlights the objective and purpose of the research, addresses the key results precisely, and briefly describes the conclusion of the study (usually in under 250 words). This is the first and possibly only chance to draw in your readers so keep it simple and specific, avoid using jargon or being repetitive as you’re writing for a wide, varied audience.

In addition to the sections mentioned above, there are other key parts of a manuscript that require deep thought and time to put together. Showcase your findings through tables and figures (one per page) and format the references correctly (2-4 pages) in your research manuscript. Finally, when writing your research manuscript, be sure to follow the guidelines provided by the journal or institute you will be submitting to. Keep to the recommended paper length and journal formats when writing a manuscript for it to be considered and taken forward for publication.

References:

• Khadilkar SS. Rejection Blues: Why Do Research Papers Get Rejected? The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology of India, August 2018. Available at https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6046667/
• Borja A. 11 steps to structuring a science paper editors will take seriously. Elsevier Connect, June 2014. Available at https://www.elsevier.com/connect/11-steps-to-structuring-a-science-paper-editors-will-take-seriously
• Vadrevu A. Manuscript structure: How to convey your most important ideas through your paper. Editage Insights, November 2013. Available at https://www.editage.com/insights/manuscript-structure-how-to-convey-your-most-important-ideas-through-your-paper

Related Reads:

• How to Write a Research Paper Outline: Simple Steps for Researchers
• Manuscript Withdrawal: Reasons, Consequences, and How to Withdraw Submitted Manuscripts
• Good Writing Habits: 7 Ways to Improve Your Academic Writing
• Supplementary Materials in Research: 5 Tips for Authors

Top 5 Ethical Considerations in Research

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What is a Manuscript? Definition, Meaning & 8 Tips for How to Write One

No author can publish a book without a manuscript. But what is a manuscript anyway? How do you turn a manuscript into a book? And is it hard?

Today we will be demystifying what a manuscript is so you know how to write one for yourself. Before we go into our step-by-step guide on how to give your manuscript meaning and success, let’s answer the question: What is a manuscript?

This blog will answer the questions, “What is a manuscript?” and more:

What is a manuscript, defined.

We can define manuscript in many ways. According to Merriam-Webster, we should define manuscript as:

• “a written or typewritten composition or document as distinguished from a printed copy
• also: a document submitted for publication”

The Collins Dictionary assigns this definition for what a manuscript is:

• “A manuscript is a handwritten or typed document, especially a writer’s first version of a book before it is published.
• “A manuscript is an old document that was written by hand before printing was invented.”

And according to Cambridge Dictionary, a manuscript is:

• “the original copy of a book or article before it is printed”

Now obviously, printing was invented a long time ago, so when we discuss what a manuscript is in terms of writing today, we are generally referring to written work before it has been published. 

In simple terms, a manuscript is the unpublished version of what might eventually become a book. Of course, we cannot call it a book until it is published. 

Whether your manuscript is edited or unedited doesn’t matter – it is simply a draft and not yet a book. 

A manuscript is what a writer works and reworks again with line editors and copy editors to turn into a final product. It can also be referred to as a “typescript,” since most writers these days use a computer or typewriter to complete their work. 

So what is a manuscript? It’s the original document created by a writer – in a pre-published stage. 

Whether you wish to learn how to write a memoir , a fantasy novel, or a children’s picture book , a manuscript is what you must complete first. 

So how do you write a manuscript? Let’s discuss some simple steps to follow for writing success. 

Related: What Is An Advanced Reader Copy?

8 tips for writing a successful manuscript

Now that you know what a manuscript is, it’s time to set to writing one. Here are our top tips for giving your manuscript meaning:

1. Come up with an idea

It doesn’t matter how much you know about manuscripts if you don’t have any content to fill one with. Before you set to writing a manuscript, you need to have something to write about. 

Decide what genre you will write in. (You can use our giant list of book genres for inspiration.) Make sure it’s a genre you are already comfortable with, and read books from that genre to make yourself more familiar with successful examples.

If you need help with ideas, you can use our writing prompt generator to get started!

Related: 250+ Writing Prompts By Genre

2. Create a distraction-free writing space 

Distraction is the enemy of all writers. As such, you want to create a dedicated writing space for yourself that is as distraction-free as possible. When you enter this space, your brain will intuitively know it is time to write. 

If possible, set up your writing space away from high-traffic areas. Decide if quotes and mood board will inspire your writing, or distract you from it. 

Remove any unnecessary items from your workspace and silence phone notifications. If needed, let your family know that you will be writing so they don’t interrupt you. 

Related: The 13 Best Distraction-Free Writing Apps

3. Set a writing schedule

To write a manuscript…you need to actually write. And if you don’t make time for it, it will be all too easy to avoid your manuscript.

Block out time in your schedule for writing and make it as non-negotiable as a doctor’s appointment. Sitting down to write is the single most difficult challenge most writers face, but if you can make yourself do it, you are already halfway there.  

4. Choose a book writing software

Every career has tools of the trade, and writing is no different. Leveraging the best book writing software can make writing your first manuscript SO much easier. 

You can set writing targets, make color-coded notes on your drafts, easily jump between chapters, drag and drop sections around, and so much more.  While it has a little bit of a learning curve, one software many writers swear by is Scrivener .

5. Create an outline

If you are new to writing manuscripts, you probably don’t want to go in blind. It’s a good idea to lay some groundwork first. 

Do some research. If you are writing a fiction book , decide what your character arc will be and work on world-building and fleshing out supporting characters.

If you are writing a nonfiction book , think about the goal of your writing. How will it help the readers? What lessons do you want them to take away from your work?

Draft up a general outline of key events that will give your manuscript meaning. 

6. Start fleshing your outline out

Now it’s time to fill in the details. To do this, just start writing! Set some daily or weekly writing goals to hold yourself accountable. And, instead of wrapping up a scene or chapter, try ending in the middle of a paragraph – this way, you give yourself a cliffhanger to wrap up the next day.

It will be much easier to pick up writing again if you enter in the middle of the action. You won’t need to start fresh every day while staring blankly at your screen. This technique may help you avoid getting hit with dreaded writer’s block. 

Of course, everyone has their own writing style , so find what works for you and stick with it!

Related: Book Manuscript Template & Formatting Checklist

7. Don’t worry about perfection

Many new writers get hung up on making their writing perfect the first time around.

There will be plenty of time to rework things after you finish writing your manuscript. If you nitpick every page and line you write, you will BURN OUT. 

Worry about formatting and editing later. After you have a completed manuscript, you can work with a book editor who can revise and proofread your work. 

8. Just keep writing!

Writing a manuscript can take a long time, but you can absolutely do it. Take your writing a day at a time in small, manageable pieces and before you know it, you’ll have a finished product. 

Want to turn your manuscript into a book?

Now you have a thorough understanding of what a manuscript is and how to write one. But, as we mentioned, a manuscript isn’t a book. If you’d like to turn it into a book, the team at selfpublishing.com can help!

We work with hundreds of writers to turn their ideas into successful, published pieces of literature. 

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• Open access
• Published: 04 September 2024

Insights into research activities of senior dental students in the Middle East: A multicenter preliminary study

• Mohammad S. Alrashdan 1 , 2 ,
• Abubaker Qutieshat 3 , 4 ,
• Mohamed El-Kishawi 5 ,
• Abdulghani Alarabi 6 ,
• Lina Khasawneh 7 &
• Sausan Al Kawas 1  

BMC Medical Education volume  24 , Article number:  967 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

Metrics details

Despite the increasing recognition of the importance of research in undergraduate dental education, limited studies have explored the nature of undergraduate research activities in dental schools in the Middle East region. This study aimed to evaluate the research experience of final year dental students from three dental schools in the Middle East.

A descriptive, cross-sectional study was conducted among final-year dental students from three institutions, namely Jordan University of Science and Technology, University of Sharjah (UAE), and Oman Dental College. Participants were asked about the nature and scope of their research projects, the processes involved in the research, and their perceived benefits of engaging in research.

A total of 369 respondents completed the questionnaire.  Cross-sectional studies represented the most common research type  (50.4%), with public health (29.3%) and dental education (27.9%) being the predominant domains. More than half of research proposals were developed via discussions with instructors (55.0%), and literature reviews primarily utilized PubMed (70.2%) and Google Scholar (68.5%). Regarding statistical analysis, it was usually carried out with instructor’s assistance (45.2%) or using specialized software (45.5%). The students typically concluded their projects with a manuscript (58.4%), finding the discussion section most challenging to write (42.0%). The research activity was considered highly beneficial, especially in terms of teamwork and communication skills, as well as data interpretation skills, with 74.1% of students reporting a positive impact on their research perspectives.

Conclusions

The research experience was generally positive among surveyed dental students. However, there is a need for more diversity in research domains, especially in qualitative studies, greater focus on guiding students in research activities s, especially in manuscript writing and publication. The outcomes of this study could provide valuable insights for dental schools seeking to improve their undergraduate research activities.

Peer Review reports

Introduction

The importance of research training for undergraduate dental students cannot be overstressed and many reports have thoroughly discussed the necessity of incorporating research components in the dental curricula [ 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 ]. A structured research training is crucial to ensure that dental graduates will adhere to evidence-based practices and policies in their future career and are able to critically appraise the overwhelming amount of dental and relevant medical literature so that only rigorous scientific outcomes are adopted. Furthermore, a sound research background is imperative for dental graduates to overcome some of the reported barriers to scientific evidence uptake. This includes the lack of familiarity or uncertain applicability and the lack of agreement with available evidence [ 5 ]. There is even evidence that engagement in research activities can improve the academic achievements of students [ 6 ]. Importantly, many accreditation bodies around the globe require a distinct research component with clear learning outcomes to be present in the curriculum of the dental schools [ 1 ].

Research projects and courses have become fundamental elements of modern biomedical education worldwide. The integration of research training in biomedical academic programs has evolved over the years, reflecting the growing recognition of research as a cornerstone of evidence-based practice [ 7 ]. Notwithstanding the numerous opportunities presented by the inclusion of research training in biomedical programs, it poses significant challenges such as limited resources, varying levels of student preparedness, and the need for faculty development in research mentorship [ 8 , 9 ]. Addressing these challenges is essential to maximize the benefits of research training and to ensure that all students can engage meaningfully in research activities.

While there are different models for incorporating research training into biomedical programs, including dentistry, almost all models share the common goals of equipping students with basic research skills and techniques, critical thinking training and undertaking research projects either as an elective or a summer training course, or more commonly as a compulsory course required for graduation [ 2 , 4 , 10 ].

Dental colleges in the Middle East region are not an exception and most of these colleges are continuously striving to update their curricula to improve the undergraduate research component and cultivate a research-oriented academic teaching environment. Despite these efforts, there remains a significant gap in our understanding of the nature and scope of student-led research in these institutions, the challenges they face, and the perceived benefits of their research experiences. Furthermore, a common approach in most studies in this domain is to confine data collection to a single center from a single country, which in turn limits the value of the outcomes. Therefore, it is of utmost importance to conduct studies with representative samples and preferably multiple institutions in order to address the existing knowledge gaps, to provide valuable insights that can inform future curricular improvements and to support the development of more effective research training programs in dental education across the region. Accordingly, this study was designed and conducted to elucidate some of these knowledge gaps.

The faculty of dentistry at Jordan University of Science and Technology (JUST) is the biggest in Jordan and adopts a five-year bachelor’s program in dental surgery (BDS). The faculty is home to more than 1600 undergraduate and 75 postgraduate students. The college of dental medicine at the University of Sharjah (UoS) is also the biggest in the UAE, with both undergraduate and postgraduate programs, local and international accreditation and follows a (1 + 5) program structure, whereby students need to finish a foundation year and then qualify for the five-year BDS program. Furthermore, the UoS dental college applies an integrated stream-based curriculum. Finally, Oman Dental College (ODC) is the sole dental school in Oman and represents an independent college that does not belong to a university body.

The aim of this study was to evaluate the research experience of final year dental students from three major dental schools in the Middle East, namely JUST from Jordan, UoS from the UAE, and ODC from Oman. Furthermore, the hypothesis of this study was that research activities conducted at dental schools has no perceived benefit for final year dental students.

The rationale for selecting these three dental schools stems from the diversity in the dental curriculum and program structure as well as the fact that final year BDS students are required to conduct a research project as a prerequisite for graduation in the three schools. Furthermore, the authors from these dental schools have a strong scholarly record and have been collaborating in a variety of academic and research activities.

Materials and methods

The current study is a population-based descriptive cross-sectional observational study. The study was conducted using an online self-administered questionnaire and targeted final-year dental students at three dental schools in the Middle East region: JUST from Jordan, UoS from the UAE, and ODC from Oman. The study took place in the period from January to June 2023.

For inclusion in the study, participants should have been final-year dental students at the three participating schools, have finished their research project and agreed to participate. Exclusion criteria included any students not in their final year, those who have not conducted or finished their research projects and those who refused to participate.

The study was approved by the institutional review board of JUST (Reference: 724–2022), the research ethics committee of the UoS (Reference: REC-22-02-22-3) as well as ODC (Reference: ODC-MA-2022-166). The study adhered to the Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology (STROBE) guidelines [ 11 ]. The checklist is available as a supplementary file.

Sample size determination was based on previous studies with a similar design and was further confirmed with a statistical formula. A close look at the relevant literature reveals that such studies were either targeting a single dental or medical school or multiple schools and the sample size generally ranged from 158 to 360 [ 4 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 12 ]. Furthermore, to confirm the sample size, the following 2-step formula for finite population sample size calculation was used [ 13 ]:

Wherein Z is the confidence level at 95% =1.96, P is the population proportion = 0.5, and E is the margin of error = 0.05. Based on this formula, the resultant initial sample size was 384.

Wherein n is the initial sample size = 384, N is the total population size (total number of final year dental students in the 3 schools) = 443. Based on this formula, the adjusted sample size was 206.

An online, self-administered questionnaire comprising 13 questions was designed to assess the research experience of final year dental students in the participating schools. The questionnaire was initially prepared by the first three authors and was then reviewed and approved by the other authors. The questionnaire was developed following an extensive review of relevant literature to identify the most critical aspects of research projects conducted at the dental or medical schools and the most common challenges experienced by students with regards to research project design, research components, attributes, analysis, interpretation, drafting, writing, and presentation of the final outcomes.

The questionnaire was then pretested for both face and content validity. Face validity was assessed by a pilot study that evaluated clarity, validity, and comprehensiveness in a small cohort of 30 students. Content validity was assessed by the authors, who are all experienced academics with remarkable research profiles and experience in supervising undergraduate and postgraduate research projects. The authors critically evaluated each item and made the necessary changes whenever required. Furthermore, Cronbach’s alpha was used to assess the internal consistency/ reliability of the questionnaire and the correlation between the questionnaire items was found to be 0.79. Thereafter, online invitations along with the questionnaire were sent out to a total of 443 students, 280 from JUST, 96 from UoS and 67 from ODC, which represented the total number of final year students at the three schools. A first reminder was sent 2 weeks later, and a second reminder was sent after another 2 weeks.

In addition to basic demographic details, the questionnaire comprised questions related to the type of study conducted, the scope of the research project, whether the research project was proposed by the students or the instructors or both, the literature review part of the project, the statistical analysis performed, the final presentation of the project, the writing up of the resultant manuscript if applicable, the perceived benefits of the research project and finally suggestions to improve the research component for future students.

The outcomes of the study were the students’ research experience in terms of research design, literature review, data collection, analysis, interpretation and presentation, students’ perceived benefits from research, students’ perspective towards research in their future career and students’ suggestions to improve their research experience.

The exposures were the educational and clinical experience of students, research supervision by mentors and faculty members, and participation in extracurricular activities, while the predictors were the academic performance of students, previous research experience and self-motivation.

The collected responses were entered into a Microsoft Excel spreadsheet and analyzed using SPSS Statistics software, version 20.0 (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA). Descriptive data were presented as frequencies and percentages. For this study, only descriptive statistics were carried out as the aim was not to compare and contrast the three schools but rather to provide an overview of the research activities at the participating dental schools.

The heatmap generated to represent the answers for question 11 (perceived benefits of the research activity) was created using Python programming language (Python 3.11) and the pandas, seaborn, and matplotlib libraries. The heatmap was customized to highlight the count and percentage of responses in each component, with the highest values shown in red and the lowest values shown in blue.

Potentially eligible participants in this study were all final year dental students at the three dental schools (443 students, 280 from JUST, 96 from UoS and 67 from ODC). All potentially eligible participants were confirmed to be eligible and were invited to participate in the study.

The total number of participants included in the study, i.e. the total number of students who completed the questionnaire and whose responses were analyzed, was 369 (223 from JUST, 80 from UoS and 66 from ODC). The overall response rate was 83.3% (79.6% from JUST, 83.3% from UoS and 98.5% from ODC).

The highest proportion of participants were from JUST ( n  = 223, 60.4%), followed by UoS ( n  = 80, 21.7%), and then ODC ( n  = 66, 17.9%). The majority of the participants were females ( n  = 296, 80.4%), while males represented a smaller proportion ( n  = 73, 19.6%). It is noteworthy that these proportions reflect the size of the cohorts in each college.

With regards to the type of study, half of final-year dental students in the 3 colleges participated in observational cross-sectional studies (i.e., population-based studies) ( n  = 186, 50.4%), while literature review projects were the second most common type ( n  = 83, 22.5%), followed by experimental studies ( n  = 55, 14.9%). Longitudinal studies randomized controlled trials, and other types of studies (e.g., qualitative studies, case reports) were less common, with ( n  = 5, 1.4%), ( n  = 10, 2.7%), and ( n  = 30, 8.1%) participation rates, respectively. Distribution of study types within each college is shown Fig.  1 .

Distribution in percent of study types within each college. JUST: Jordan University of Science and Technology, UOS: University of Sharjah, ODC: Oman Dental College

The most common scope of research projects among final-year dental students was in public health/health services ( n  = 108, 29.3%) followed by dental education/attitudes of students or faculty ( n  = 103, 27.9%) (Fig.  2 ). Biomaterials/dental materials ( n  = 62, 16.8%) and restorative dentistry ( n  = 41, 11.1%) were also popular research areas. Oral diagnostic sciences (oral medicine/oral pathology/oral radiology) ( n  = 28, 7.6%), oral surgery ( n  = 12, 3.2%) and other research areas ( n  = 15, 4.1%) were less common among the participants. Thirty-two students (8.7%) were engaged in more than one research project.

Percentages of the scope of research projects among final-year dental students. JUST: Jordan University of Science and Technology, UOS: University of Sharjah, ODC: Oman Dental College

The majority of research projects were proposed through a discussion and agreement between the students and the instructor (55.0%). Instructors proposed the topic for 36.6% of the research projects, while students proposed the topic for the remaining 8.4% of the projects.

Most dental students (79.1%) performed the literature review for their research projects using internet search engines. Material provided by the instructor was used for the literature review by 15.5% of the students, while 5.4% of the students did not perform a literature review. More than half of the students ( n  = 191, 51.7%) used multiple search engines in their literature search. The most popular search engines for literature review among dental students were PubMed (70.2% of cases) and Google Scholar (68.5% of cases). Scopus was used by 12.8% of students, while other search engines were used by 15.6% of students.

The majority of dental students ( n  = 276, 74.8%) did not utilize the university library to gain access to the required material for their research. In contrast, 93 students (25.2%) reported using the university library for this purpose.

Dental students performed statistical analysis in their projects primarily by receiving help from the instructor ( n  = 167, 45.2%) or using specialized software ( n  = 168, 45.5%). A smaller percentage of students ( n  = 34, 9.4%) consulted a professional statistician for assistance with statistical analysis. at the end of the research project, 58.4% of students ( n  = 215) presented their work in the form of a manuscript or scientific paper. Other methods of presenting the work included PowerPoint presentations ( n  = 80, 21.7%) and discussions with the instructor ( n  = 74, 19.8%).

For those students who prepared a manuscript at the conclusion of their project, the most difficult part of the writing-up was the discussion section ( n  = 155, 42.0%), followed by the methodology section ( n  = 120, 32.5%), a finding that was common across the three colleges. Fewer students found the introduction ( n  = 13, 3.6%) and conclusion ( n  = 10, 2.7%) sections to be challenging. Additionally, 71 students (19.2%) were not sure which part of the manuscript was the most difficult to prepare (Fig.  3 ).

Percentages of the most difficult part reported by dental students during the writing-up of their projects. JUST: Jordan University of Science and Technology, UOS: University of Sharjah, ODC: Oman Dental College

The dental students’ perceived benefits from the research activity were evaluated across seven components, including literature review skills, research design skills, data collection and interpretation, manuscript writing, publication, teamwork and effective communication, and engagement in continuing professional development.

The majority of students found the research activity to be beneficial or highly beneficial in most of the areas, with the highest ratings observed in teamwork and effective communication, where 33.5% rated it as beneficial and 32.7% rated it as highly beneficial. Similarly, in the area of data collection and interpretation, 33.0% rated it as beneficial and 27.5% rated it as highly beneficial. In the areas of literature review skills and research design skills, 28.6% and 34.0% of students rated the research activity as beneficial, while 25.3% and 22.7% rated it as highly beneficial, respectively. Students also perceived the research activity to be helpful for the manuscript writing, with 27.9% rating it as beneficial and 19.2% rating it as highly beneficial.

When it comes to publication, students’ perceptions were more variable, with 22.0% rating it as beneficial and 11.3% rating it as highly beneficial. A notable 29.9% rated it as neutral, and 17.9% reported no benefit. Finally, in terms of engaging in continuing professional development, 26.8% of students rated the research activity as beneficial and 26.2% rated it as highly beneficial (Fig.  4 ).

Heatmap of the dental students’ perceived benefits from the research activity

The research course’s impact on students’ perspectives towards being engaged in research activities or pursuing a research career after graduation was predominantly positive, wherein 274 students (74.1%) reported a positive impact on their research perspectives. However, 79 students (21.5%) felt that the course had no impact on their outlook towards research engagement or a research career. A small percentage of students ( n  = 16, 4.4%) indicated that the course had a negative impact on their perspective towards research activities or a research career after graduation.

Finally, when students were asked about their suggestions to improve research activities, they indicated the need for more training and orientation ( n  = 127, 34.6%) as well as to allow more time for students to finish their research projects ( n  = 87, 23.6%). Participation in competitions and more generous funding were believed to be less important factors to improve students` research experience ( n  = 78, 21.2% and n  = 63, 17.1%, respectively). Other factors such as external collaborations and engagement in research groups were even less important from the students` perspective (Fig.  5 ).

Precentages of dental students’ suggestions to improve research activities at their colleges

To the best of our knowledge, this report is the first to provide a comprehensive overview of the research experience of dental students from three leading dental colleges in the Middle East region, which is home to more than 50 dental schools according to the latest SCImago Institutions Ranking ® ( https://www.scimagoir.com ). The reasonable sample size and different curricular structure across the participating colleges enhanced the value of our findings not only for dental colleges in the Middle East, but also to any dental college seeking to improve and update its undergraduate research activities. However, it is noteworthy that since the study has included only three dental schools, the generalizability of the current findings would be limited, and the outcomes are preliminary in nature.

Cross-sectional (epidemiological) studies and literature reviews represented the most common types of research among our cohort of students, which can be attributed to the feasibility, shorter time and low cost required to conduct such research projects. On the contrary, longitudinal studies and randomized trials, both known to be time consuming and meticulous, were the least common types. These findings concur with previous reports, which demonstrated that epidemiological studies are popular among undergraduate research projects [ 4 , 10 ]. In a retrospective study, Nalliah et al. also demonstrated a remarkable increase in epidemiological research concurrent with a decline in the clinical research in dental students` projects over a period of 4 years [ 4 ]. However, literature reviews, whether systematic or scoping, were not as common in some dental schools as in our cohort. For instance, a report from Sweden showed that literature reviews accounted for less than 10% of total dental students` projects [ 14 ]. Overall, qualitative research was seldom performed among our cohort, which is in agreement with a general trend in dental research that has been linked to the low level of competence and experience of dental educators to train students in qualitative research, as this requires special training in social research [ 15 , 16 ].

In terms of the research topics, public health research, research in dental education and attitudinal research were the most prevalent among our respondents. In agreement with our results, research in health care appears common in dental students` projects [ 12 ]. In general, these research domains may reflect the underlying interests of the faculty supervisors, who, in our case, were actively engaged in the selection of the research topic for more than 90% of the projects. Other areas of research, such as clinical dentistry and basic dental research are also widely reported [ 4 , 10 , 14 , 17 ].

The selection of a research domain is a critical step in undergraduate research projects, and a systematic approach in identifying research gaps and selecting appropriate research topics is indispensable and should always be given an utmost attention by supervisors [ 18 ].

More than half of the projects in the current report were reasonably selected based on a discussion between the students and the supervisor, whereas 36% were selected by the supervisors. Otuyemi et al. reported that about half of undergraduate research topics in a Nigerian dental school were selected by students themselves, however, a significant proportion of these projects (20%) were subsequently modified by supervisors [ 19 ]. The autonomy in selecting the research topic was discussed in a Swedish report, which suggested that such approach can enhance the learning experience of students, their motivation and creativity [ 20 ]. Flexibility in selecting the research topic as well as the faculty supervisor, whenever feasible, should be offered to students in order to improve their research experience and gain better outcomes [ 12 ].

Pubmed and Google Scholar were the most widely used search engines for performing a literature review. This finding is consistent with recent reviews which classify these two search systems as the most commonly used ones in biomedical research despite some critical limitations [ 21 , 22 ]. It is noteworthy that students should be competent in critical appraisal of available literature to perform the literature review efficiently. Interestingly, only 25% of students used their respective university library`s access to the search engines, which means that most students retrieved only open access publications for their literature reviews, a finding that requires attention from faculty mentors to guide students to utilize the available library services to widen their accessibility to available literature.

Statistical analysis has classically been viewed as a perceived obstacle for undergraduate students to undertake research in general [ 23 , 24 ] and recent literature has highlighted the crucial need of biomedical students to develop necessary competencies in biostatistics during their studies [ 25 ]. One obvious advantage of conducting research in our cohort is that 45.5% of students used a specialized software to analyze their data, which means that they did have at least an overview of how data are processed and analyzed to reach their final results and inferences. Unfortunately, the remaining 54.5% of students were, partially or completely, dependent on the supervisor or a professional statistician for data analysis. It is noteworthy that the research projects were appropriately tailored to the undergraduate level, focusing on fundamental statistical analysis methods. Therefore, consulting a professional statistician for more complex analyses was done only if indicated, which explains the small percentage of students who consulted a professional statistician.

Over half of participating students (58.4%) prepared a manuscript at the end of their research projects and for these students, the discussion section was identified as the most challenging to prepare, followed by the methodology section. These findings can be explained by the students’ lack of knowledge and experience related to conducting and writing-up scientific research. The same was reported by Habib et al. who found dental students’ research knowledge to be less than that of medical students [ 26 ]. The skills of critical thinking and scientific writing are believed to be of paramount importance to biomedical students and several strategies have been proposed to enhance these skills especially for both English and non-English speaking students [ 27 , 28 , 29 ].

Dental students in the current study reported positive attitude towards research and found the research activity to be beneficial in several aspects of their education, with the most significant benefits in the areas of teamwork, effective communication, data collection and interpretation, literature review skills, and research design skills. Similar findings were reported by previous studies with most of participating students reporting a positive impact of their research experience [ 4 , 10 , 12 , 30 ]. Furthermore, 74% of students found that their research experience had a positive impact on their perspectives towards engagement in research in the future. This particular finding may be promising in resolving a general lack of interest in research by dental students, as shown in a previous report from one of the participating colleges in this study (JUST), which demonstrated that only 2% of students may consider a research career in the future [ 31 ].

Notably, only 11.3% of our students perceived their research experience as being highly beneficial with regards to publication. Students` attitudes towards publishing their research appear inconsistent in literature and ranges from highly positive rates in developed countries [ 4 ] to relatively low rates in developing countries [ 8 , 32 , 33 ]. This can be attributed to lack of motivation and poor training in scientific writing skills, a finding that has prompted researchers to propose strategies to tackle such a gap as mentioned in the previous section.

Finally, key suggestions by the students to improve the research experience were the provision of more training and orientation, more time to conduct the research, as well as participation in competitions and more funding opportunities. These findings are generally in agreement with previous studies which demonstrated that dental students perceived these factors as potential barriers to improving their research experience [ 8 , 10 , 17 , 30 , 34 ].

A major limitation of the current study is the inclusion of only three dental schools from the Middle East which my limit the generalizability and validity of the findings. Furthermore, the cross-sectional nature of the study would not allow definitive conclusions to be drawn as students’ perspectives were not evaluated before and after the research project. Potential confounders in the study include the socioeconomic status of the students, the teaching environment, previous research experience, and self-motivation. Moreover, potential sources of bias include variations in the available resources and funding to students’ projects and variations in the quality of supervision provided. Another potential source of bias is the non-response bias whereby students with low academic performance or those who were not motivated might not respond to the questionnaire. This potential source of bias was managed by sending multiple reminders to students and aiming for the highest response rate and largest sample size possible.

In conclusion, the current study evaluated the key aspects of dental students’ research experience at three dental colleges in the Middle East. While there were several perceived benefits, some aspects need further reinforcement and revision including the paucity of qualitative and clinical research, the need for more rigorous supervision from mentors with focus on scientific writing skills and research presentation opportunities. Within the limitations of the current study, these outcomes can help in designing future larger scale studies and provide valuable guidance for dental colleges to foster the research component in their curricula. Further studies with larger and more representative samples are required to validate these findings and to explore other relevant elements in undergraduate dental research activities.

Data availability

The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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Acknowledgements

The authors would like to acknowledge final year dental students at the three participating colleges for their time completing the questionnaire.

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Mohammad S. Alrashdan

Department of Adult Restorative Dentistry, Oman Dental College, Muscat, Sultanate of Oman

Abubaker Qutieshat

Department of Restorative Dentistry, Dundee Dental Hospital & School, University of Dundee, Dundee, UK

Preventive and Restorative Dentistry Department, College of Dental Medicine, University of Sharjah, Sharjah, UAE

Mohamed El-Kishawi

Clinical Sciences Department, College of Dentistry, Ajman University, Ajman, UAE

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M.A.: Conceptualization, data curation, project administration; supervision, validation, writing - original draft; writing - review and editing. A.Q: Conceptualization, data curation, project administration; writing - review and editing. M.E: Conceptualization, data curation, project administration; validation, writing - original draft; writing - review and editing. A.A.: data curation, writing - original draft; writing - review and editing. L.K.: Conceptualization, data curation, validation, writing - original draft; writing - review and editing. S.A: Conceptualization, writing - review and editing.

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The current study was approved by the institutional review board of Jordan University of Science and Technology (Reference: 724–2022), the research ethics committee of the University of Sharjah (Reference: REC-22-02-22-3) and Oman Dental College (Reference: ODC-MA-2022-166).

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Alrashdan, M.S., Qutieshat, A., El-Kishawi, M. et al. Insights into research activities of senior dental students in the Middle East: A multicenter preliminary study. BMC Med Educ 24 , 967 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-024-05955-5

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Preparing and Publishing a Scientific Manuscript

Padma r. jirge.

Department of Reproductive Medicine, Sushrut Assisted Conception Clinic Shreyas Hospital, Kolhapur, Maharashtra, India

Publishing original research in a peer-reviewed and indexed journal is an important milestone for a scientist or a clinician. It is an important parameter to assess academic achievements. However, technical and language barriers may prevent many enthusiasts from ever publishing. This review highlights the important preparatory steps for creating a good manuscript and the most widely used IMRaD (Introduction, Materials and Methods, Results, and Discussion) method for writing a good manuscript. It also provides a brief overview of the submission and review process of a manuscript for publishing in a biomedical journal.

B ACKGROUND

T he publication of original research in a peer-reviewed and indexed journal is the ultimate and most important step toward the recognition of any scientific work. However, the process starts long before the write-up of a manuscript. The journal in which the author wishes to publish his/her work should be chosen at the time of conceptualization of the scientific work based on the expected readership.

The journals do provide information on the “scope of the journal,” which specifies the scientific areas relevant for publication in the journal, and “instructions to authors,” which need to be adhered to while preparing a manuscript.

The publication of scientific work has become mandatory for scientists or specialists holding academic affiliations, and it is now desirable even at an undergraduate level. Despite a plethora of forums for presenting the original research work, very little of it ever gets published in a scientific journal, and even if it does, the manuscripts are usually from the same few institutions.[ 1 , 2 ] It serves the purpose of academic recognition; and certain publications may even contribute to shaping various national policies. An academic appointment, suitable infrastructure, and access to peer-reviewed journals are considered as the facilitators for publishing.[ 3 ]

The lack of technical and writing skills, institutional hurdles, and time constraints are considered as the major hurdles for any scientific publication.[ 3 ] In addition, the majority of clinicians in India are involved in providing healthcare in the private sector in individually owned hospitals or those governed by small groups of doctors. This necessitates performing a multitude of tasks apart from providing core clinical care and, hence, poses an additional limiting factor because of the long and irregular working hours.

It is extremely challenging to dedicate some time for research and writing in such a scenario. However, it is a loss to science if this group of skilled clinicians does not contribute to medical literature.

Maintaining the ethics and science of research and understanding the norms of preparing a manuscript are very important in improving the quality and relevance of clinical research in our country. This article brings together various aspects to be borne in mind while creating a manuscript suitable for publication. The inputs provided are relevant to all those interested, irrespective of whether they have an academic or institutional affiliation. While the prospect of becoming an author of a published scientific work is exciting, it is important to be prepared for minor or major revisions in the original article and even rejection. However, persevering in this endeavor may help preserving one’s work and contribute to the promotion of science.[ 4 , 5 ]

Important considerations for writing a manuscript include the following:

• (1) Conceptualization of a clinically relevant scientific work.
• (2) Choosing an appropriate journal and an alternative one.
• (3) Familiarizing with instructions to authors.
• (4) Coordination and well-defined task delegation within the team and involvement of a biostatistician from the conception of the study.
• (5) Preparing a skeletal framework for writing the manuscript.
• (6) Delegating time for thinking and writing at regular intervals.

S TEPS I NVOLVED IN M ANUSCRIPT P REPARATION

A manuscript should both be informative and readable. Even though the concept is clear in the authors’ mind, it is important to remember that they are introducing some new work for the readers, and, hence, appropriate organization of the manuscript is necessary to make the purpose and importance of the work clear to the readers.

• (1) Choosing the appropriate journal for publication : The preferred choice of journal should be one of the first steps to be considered, as mentioned earlier. The guidelines for authors may change with time and, hence, should be referred to at regular intervals and conformed to. The choice of journal principally depends on the target readers, and it may be necessary to have one or more journals in mind in case of nonacceptance from the journal of first choice. A journal’s impact factor is to be considered while choosing an appropriate journal.

Majority of the biomedical journals with good impact factor have specific authorship criteria.[ 8 ] This prevents problems related to ghost authorship and honorary authorship. Ghost authorship refers to a scenario wherein an author’s name is omitted to hide financial relationships with private companies; honorary authorship is naming someone who has not made substantial contribution to the work, either due to pressure from colleagues or to improve the chances of publication.[ 9 ]

Most of the journals conform to the authorship criteria defined by the International Committee of Medical Journal Editors.[ 10 ] They are listed as the following:

Substantial contributions to the conception or design of the work; or the acquisition, analysis, or interpretation of data for the work; ANDDrafting the work or revising it critically for important intellectual content; ANDFinal approval of the version to be published; ANDAgreement to be accountable for all aspects of the work in ensuring that questions related to the accuracy or integrity of any part of the work are appropriately investigated and resolved.

Some journals require authors to declare their contributions to the research work and manuscript preparation. This helps to prevent honorary and ghost authorship and encourages authors to be more honest and accountable.[ 11 ]

Keywords : are mentioned at the bottom of the Abstract section. These words denote the important aspects of the manuscript and help identify the manuscripts by electronic search engines. Most of the journals specify the number of keywords required, usually between 4 and 8. They need to be simple and specific to the manuscript; a good title contains majority of the keywords.

The general flow of the manuscript follows an IMRaD (Introduction, Materials and Methods, Results, and Discussion) structure. Even though this has been recommended since the early 20 th century, most of the authors started following it since the 1970s.[ 13 ]

Important components of the Introduction section

A common error while writing an introduction is an attempt to review the entire evidence available on the topic. This becomes confusing to the reader, and the purpose and importance of the study in question gets submerged in the plethora of information provided. Issues mentioned in the Introduction section will need to be addressed in the Discussion section, and it is important to avoid repetitions and overlapping. Some may prefer to write the Introduction section after preparing the draft of the Materials and Methods and Results sections.

The last paragraph in the Introduction section defines the aim of the study or the study question using active verbs. If there is more than one aim for the study, specify the primary aim and address the secondary aims in a separate sentence. It is recommended that the Introduction section should not occupy more than 10–15% of the entire text.[ 14 ]

This is followed by a detailed description of the study protocol. At times, some of the methods used may be very elaborate and not very relevant to majority of the readers, for example, if polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is used for diagnosis, the type of PCR performed should be mentioned in this section, but the entire procedure need not be elaborated in the “methods” section. Either a relevant reference can be provided or the procedural details can be given online as supplemental data.

It is important to mention both the generic and brand names of all the drugs used along with the name of the manufacturer and the place of manufacturing. Similarly, all the hematological, biochemical, hormonal assays, and radiological investigations performed should provide the specifications of the equipment used and its manufacturer’s details. For many biochemical and endocrine parameters, it is preferred that the intra- and interassay coefficients of variation are provided. In addition, the standard units of measurements and the internationally accepted abbreviations should be used.[ 18 ]

There are online guidelines available to maintain uniformity in reporting the different types of studies such as Consolidated Standards of Reporting Trials (CONSORT) for randomized controlled trials, Strengthening the Reporting of Observational studies in Epidemiology (STROBE) for observational studies, and Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) for systematic reviews.[ 19 ] Adherence to these guidelines improves the clarity and completeness of reporting.

Statistical analysis : One of the most important deterrents for publishing clinical research is the inability to choose and perform appropriate statistical analysis. With the availability of various user-friendly software systems, an increasing number of the researchers are comfortable performing complex analyses without additional assistance. However, it is still a common practice to involve biostatisticians for this purpose. Coordination between the clinicians and biostatisticians is very important for sample size calculation, creation of a proper data set, and its subsequent analysis. It is important to use the appropriate statistical methodologies for a more complete representation of the data to improve the quality of a manuscript.[ 20 ] It may be helpful to refer to a recent review of the most widely used statistical analyses and their application in clinical research for a better data presentation.[ 20 ] There is some evidence that structured training involving data analysis, manuscript writing, and submission to indexed journals improves the quality of submitted manuscripts even in a low-resource setting.[ 21 ] Short, online certificate courses on biostatistics are available free of cost from many universities across the globe. The important aspects regarding the Materials and Methods section are summarized in Table 2 .

Important components of the Materials and Methods section

The results of the study are summarized in the form of tables and figures. Journals may have limitations on the number of figures and tables, as well as the rows and columns in tables. The text should only highlight the findings recorded in the tables and figures and should not repeat every detail.[ 16 ] Primary analysis should be presented in a separate paragraph. Any secondary analysis performed in view of the results seen in the primary analysis should be mentioned separately [ Table 3 ].

Important components of the Results section

When comparing two groups, it is a good practice to mention the data pertaining to the study group followed by that of the control group and to maintain the same order throughout the section. No adjectives should be used while comparing, except for the statistical significance of the findings. The Results section is written in the past tense, and the numerical values should be presented with a maximum of one decimal place.

Statistical significance as shown by P-value, if accompanied by odds ratio and 95% confidence interval gives important information of direction and size of treatment effect. The measures of central tendencies should be followed by the appropriate measures of variability (mean and standard deviation; median and interquartile range). Relative measures should be accompanied by absolute values (percentage and actual value).[ 22 ] The interpretation of results solely based on bar diagrams or line graphs could be misleading, and a more complete data may be presented in the form of box plots or scatter plots.[ 20 ]

The strengths and weaknesses of the study should be discussed in a separate paragraph. This makes way for implications for clinical practice and future research.[ 16 , 23 ]

The section ends with a conclusion of not more than one to two sentences. The Conclusion section summarizes the study findings in the context of evidence in the field. The important components of the Discussion section are summarized in Table 4 [ Figure 1 ].

Important components of the Discussion section

The hourglass structure of the Introduction and Discussion sections

A referencing tool such as EndNote™ may be used to store and organize the references. The references at the end of the manuscript need to be listed in a manner specified by the journal. The common styles used are Vancouver, Harvard, APA, etc.[ 24 ] Despite continued efforts, standardization to one global format has not yet become a reality.[ 25 ]

It is important to understand the evidence in the referenced articles to write meaningful Introduction and Discussion sections. Online search engines such as Pubmed, Medline, and Scopus are some of the sources that provide abstracts from indexed journals. However, a full-text article may not always be available unless one has subscription for the journals. Those with institutional attachments, authors, and even the research division of pharmaceutical companies may be unconventional but helpful sources for procuring full-text articles. Individual articles can be purchased from certain journals as well.

• (9) Acknowledgements : This section follows the Conclusion section. People who have helped in various aspects of the concerned research work, statistical analysis, or manuscript preparation, but do not qualify to be authors for the study, are acknowledged, preferably with their academic affiliations.[ 26 ]

The aforementioned section provides the general guidelines for preparing a good manuscript. However, an exhaustive list of available guidelines and other resources to facilitate good research reporting are provided by the Enhancing the Quality and Transparency of Health Research network ( http://www.equator-network.org ).

A DDITIONAL F ACTORS I NFLUENCING THE M ANUSCRIPT Q UALITY

• (1) Plagiarism : Plagiarism is a serious threat to scientific publications and is described by the office of Research Integrity as “theft or misappropriation of intellectual property and the substantial unattributed textual copying of another’s work and the representation of them as one’s own original work.” The primary responsibility of preventing plagiarism lies with the authors. It is important to develop the skill of writing any manuscript in one’s own words and when quoting available evidence, substantiate with appropriate references. However, the use of plagiarism detection tools and a critical analysis by the editorial team prior to submitting an article for peer review are also equally important to prevent this menace.[ 29 ] The consequences of plagiarism could range from disciplinary charges such as retraction of the article to criminal charges.[ 30 ]
• (2) Language : One of the important limitations to publication is the problem of writing in English. This can be minimized by seeking help from colleagues or using the language editing service provided by many of the journals.
• (3) Professional medical writing support : In recent years, it is acknowledged that the lack of time and linguistic constraints prevent some of the good work from being published. Hence, the role of professional medical writing support is being critically evaluated. Declared professional medical writing support is found to be associated with more complete reporting of clinical trial results and higher quality of written English. Medical writing support may play an important role in raising the quality of clinical trial reporting.[ 31 ] The role of professional medical writers should be acknowledged in the Acknowledgements section.[ 32 ]

S UBMISSION TO J OURNALS AND R EVIEWING P ROCESS

The submission of manuscripts is now exclusively an online exercise. The basic model of submission in any journal comprises the following: the title file or first page file, article file, image files, videos, charts, tables, figures, and copyright/consent forms. It is important to keep all the files ready in a folder before starting the submission process. When submitting images, it is important to have good quality, well-focused images with good resolution.[ 33 ] Some journals may offer the choice of selecting preferred reviewers to the authors and hence, one must be prepared for this. Once the manuscript is submitted, the status can be periodically checked. With minor variations, a submitted article goes through the following review process: The Editor allocates it to one of the editorial team members who checks for the suitability for publication in the journal. It is checked for plagiarism as well at this stage. The article then goes for peer review to two to three reviewers. The review process may take 4–6 weeks, at the end of which, the reviewers submit their remarks, and “article decision” is made, which could be an advice for minor/major revisions, rewriting the whole manuscript for specific reasons, acceptance without any changes (very rare), or rejection. It is important to take into consideration all the comments of the reviewers and incorporate the necessary changes in the manuscript before resubmitting. However, if the manuscript is rejected, revise to incorporate the valid suggestions given by the reviewers and consider submitting to another journal in the field. This should be effected without delay overcoming the disappointment so that the research still remains valid in the context of time.

P REDATORY J OURNALS

Some of the well-known journals provide an “open access” option to the authors, wherein if the manuscript is published, it is accessible to all the readers online free of cost. However, the authors need to pay a certain fee to make their manuscript an open access article. In addition, some of the well-known journals published by reputed publishers such as BioMed Central (BMC) and Public Library of Science (PLoS) have online “open access” journals, where the manuscripts are published for a fee but are subjected to the conventional scrutiny process, and the readers can access the full-text article.[ 34 ] The Directory of Open Access Journals, http://doaj.org , is an online directory that indexes and provides access to high-quality, open access, peer-reviewed journals. However, many online open access journals are mushrooming, which provide a legitimate face for an illegitimate publication process lacking basic industry standards, sound peer review practices, and solid basis in publication ethics. Such journals are known as “predatory journals.”[ 35 ] The pressure of needing to have scientific publications and the lack of knowledge regarding predatory journals may encourage authors to submit their articles to such journals. Currently, it is not easy to identify predatory journals, and authors should seek such information proactively from mentors, journal websites, and recent and relevant published literature. In addition, editorial oversights (editors and editorial board members), peer review practices, the quality of published articles, indexing, access, citations and ethical practices are important aspects to be considered while choosing an appropriate journal.[ 36 ]

A relevant research hypothesis and research conducted within the ethical framework are of utmost importance for clinical research. The natural progression from here is the manuscript preparation, a daunting process for most of the clinicians involved in clinical research. Choosing a journal that provides an appropriate platform for the manuscript, conforming to the instructions specific for the journal, and following certain simple guidelines can result in successful preparation and publishing of scientific work. Allocating certain time at regular intervals for writing and maintaining discipline and perseverance in this regard are very important prerequisites to achieve the goal of successful publication.

Financial support and sponsorship

Conflicts of interest.

There are no conflicts of interest.

R EFERENCES