Show that you understand the current state of research on your topic.
The length of a research proposal can vary quite a bit. A bachelor’s or master’s thesis proposal can be just a few pages, while proposals for PhD dissertations or research funding are usually much longer and more detailed. Your supervisor can help you determine the best length for your work.
One trick to get started is to think of your proposal’s structure as a shorter version of your thesis or dissertation , only without the results , conclusion and discussion sections.
Download our research proposal template
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Writing a research proposal can be quite challenging, but a good starting point could be to look at some examples. We’ve included a few for you below.
Like your dissertation or thesis, the proposal will usually have a title page that includes:
The first part of your proposal is the initial pitch for your project. Make sure it succinctly explains what you want to do and why.
Your introduction should:
To guide your introduction , include information about:
As you get started, it’s important to demonstrate that you’re familiar with the most important research on your topic. A strong literature review shows your reader that your project has a solid foundation in existing knowledge or theory. It also shows that you’re not simply repeating what other people have already done or said, but rather using existing research as a jumping-off point for your own.
In this section, share exactly how your project will contribute to ongoing conversations in the field by:
Following the literature review, restate your main objectives . This brings the focus back to your own project. Next, your research design or methodology section will describe your overall approach, and the practical steps you will take to answer your research questions.
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To finish your proposal on a strong note, explore the potential implications of your research for your field. Emphasize again what you aim to contribute and why it matters.
For example, your results might have implications for:
Last but not least, your research proposal must include correct citations for every source you have used, compiled in a reference list . To create citations quickly and easily, you can use our free APA citation generator .
Some institutions or funders require a detailed timeline of the project, asking you to forecast what you will do at each stage and how long it may take. While not always required, be sure to check the requirements of your project.
Here’s an example schedule to help you get started. You can also download a template at the button below.
Download our research schedule template
Research phase | Objectives | Deadline |
---|---|---|
1. Background research and literature review | 20th January | |
2. Research design planning | and data analysis methods | 13th February |
3. Data collection and preparation | with selected participants and code interviews | 24th March |
4. Data analysis | of interview transcripts | 22nd April |
5. Writing | 17th June | |
6. Revision | final work | 28th July |
If you are applying for research funding, chances are you will have to include a detailed budget. This shows your estimates of how much each part of your project will cost.
Make sure to check what type of costs the funding body will agree to cover. For each item, include:
To determine your budget, think about:
If you want to know more about the research process , methodology , research bias , or statistics , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.
Methodology
Statistics
Research bias
Once you’ve decided on your research objectives , you need to explain them in your paper, at the end of your problem statement .
Keep your research objectives clear and concise, and use appropriate verbs to accurately convey the work that you will carry out for each one.
I will compare …
A research aim is a broad statement indicating the general purpose of your research project. It should appear in your introduction at the end of your problem statement , before your research objectives.
Research objectives are more specific than your research aim. They indicate the specific ways you’ll address the overarching aim.
A PhD, which is short for philosophiae doctor (doctor of philosophy in Latin), is the highest university degree that can be obtained. In a PhD, students spend 3–5 years writing a dissertation , which aims to make a significant, original contribution to current knowledge.
A PhD is intended to prepare students for a career as a researcher, whether that be in academia, the public sector, or the private sector.
A master’s is a 1- or 2-year graduate degree that can prepare you for a variety of careers.
All master’s involve graduate-level coursework. Some are research-intensive and intend to prepare students for further study in a PhD; these usually require their students to write a master’s thesis . Others focus on professional training for a specific career.
Critical thinking refers to the ability to evaluate information and to be aware of biases or assumptions, including your own.
Like information literacy , it involves evaluating arguments, identifying and solving problems in an objective and systematic way, and clearly communicating your ideas.
The best way to remember the difference between a research plan and a research proposal is that they have fundamentally different audiences. A research plan helps you, the researcher, organize your thoughts. On the other hand, a dissertation proposal or research proposal aims to convince others (e.g., a supervisor, a funding body, or a dissertation committee) that your research topic is relevant and worthy of being conducted.
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As the competition for PhD places is incredibly fierce, your research proposal can have a strong bearing on the success of your application - so discover how to make the best impression
Research proposals are used to persuade potential supervisors and funders that your work is worthy of their support. These documents set out your proposed research that will result in a Doctoral thesis. They are typically between 1,500 and 3,000 words.
Your PhD research proposal must passionately articulate what you want to research and why, convey your understanding of existing literature, and clearly define at least one research question that could lead to new or original knowledge and how you propose to answer it.
Professor Leigh Wilson, head of the graduate school at the University of Westminster , explains that while the research proposal is about work that hasn't been done yet, what prospective supervisors and funders are focusing on just as strongly is evidence of what you've done.
This includes how well you know existing literature in the area, including very recent publications and debates, and how clearly you've seen what's missing from this and so what your research can do that's new. Giving a strong sense of this background or frame for the proposed work is crucial.
'Although it's tempting to make large claims and propose research that sweeps across time and space, narrower, more focused research is much more convincing,' she adds. 'To be thorough and rigorous in the way that academic work needs to be, even something as long as a PhD thesis can only cover a fairly narrow topic. Depth not breadth is called for.'
The structure of your research proposal is therefore important to achieving this goal, yet it should still retain sufficient flexibility to comfortably accommodate any changes you need to make as your PhD progresses.
Layout and formats vary, so it's advisable to consult your potential PhD supervisor before you begin. Here's what to bear in mind when writing a research proposal.
Your provisional title should be around ten words in length, and clearly and accurately indicate your area of study and/or proposed approach. It should be catchy, informative and interesting.
The title page should also include personal information, such as:
This is a summary of your project. Your aims should be two or three broad statements that emphasise what you want to achieve, complemented by several focused, feasible and measurable objectives - the steps that you'll take to answer each of your research questions.
You'll need to clearly and briefly outline:
This section of your PhD proposal discusses the most important theories, models and texts that surround and influence your research questions, conveying your understanding and awareness of the key issues and debates.
It should focus on the theoretical and practical knowledge gaps that your work aims to address, as this ultimately justifies and provides the motivation for your project.
Here, you're expected to outline how you'll answer each of your research questions. A strong, well-written methodology is crucial, but especially so if your project involves extensive collection and significant analysis of primary data.
In disciplines such as humanities, the research proposal methodology identifies the data collection and analytical techniques available to you, before justifying the ones you'll use in greater detail. You'll also define the population that you're intending to examine.
You should also show that you're aware of the limitations of your research, qualifying the parameters you plan to introduce. Remember, it's more impressive to do a fantastic job of exploring a narrower topic than a decent job of exploring a wider one.
Concluding or following on from your methodology, your timetable should identify how long you'll need to complete each step - perhaps using bi-weekly or monthly timeslots. This helps the reader to evaluate the feasibility of your project and shows that you've considered how you'll go about putting the PhD proposal into practice.
Finally, you'll provide a list of the most significant texts, plus any attachments such as your academic CV .
Demonstrate your skills in critical reflection by selecting only those resources that are most appropriate.
Before submitting this document along with your PhD application, you'll need to ensure that you've adhered to the research proposal format. This means that:
To get a better idea of how your PhD proposal may look, some universities have provided examples of research proposals for specific subjects, including:
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A research proposal is a supporting document that may be required when applying to a research degree. It summarises your intended research by outlining what your research questions are, why they’re important to your field and what knowledge gaps surround your topic. It also outlines your research in terms of your aims, methods and proposed timetable .
A research proposal will be used to:
Some universities will specify a word count all students will need to adhere to. You will typically find these in the description of the PhD listing. If they haven’t stated a word count limit, you should contact the potential supervisor to clarify whether there are any requirements. If not, aim for 1500 to 3500 words (3 to 7 pages).
Your title should indicate clearly what your research question is. It needs to be simple and to the point; if the reader needs to read further into your proposal to understand your question, your working title isn’t clear enough.
Directly below your title, state the topic your research question relates to. Whether you include this information at the top of your proposal or insert a dedicated title page is your choice and will come down to personal preference.
If your research proposal is over 2000 words, consider providing an abstract. Your abstract should summarise your question, why it’s important to your field and how you intend to answer it; in other words, explain your research context.
Only include crucial information in this section – 250 words should be sufficient to get across your main points.
First, specify which subject area your research problem falls in. This will help set the context of your study and will help the reader anticipate the direction of your proposed research.
Following this, include a literature review . A literature review summarises the existing knowledge which surrounds your research topic. This should include a discussion of the theories, models and bodies of text which directly relate to your research problem. As well as discussing the information available, discuss those which aren’t. In other words, identify what the current gaps in knowledge are and discuss how this will influence your research. Your aim here is to convince the potential supervisor and funding providers of why your intended research is worth investing time and money into.
Last, discuss the key debates and developments currently at the centre of your research area.
Identify the aims and objectives of your research. The aims are the problems your project intends to solve; the objectives are the measurable steps and outcomes required to achieve the aim.
In outlining your aims and objectives, you will need to explain why your proposed research is worth exploring. Consider these aspects:
If you fail to address the above questions, it’s unlikely they will accept your proposal – all PhD research projects must show originality and value to be considered.
The following structure is recommended when discussing your research design:
We’ve outlined the various stages of a PhD and the approximate duration of a PhD programme which you can refer to when designing your own research study.
Plagiarism is taken seriously across all academic levels, but even more so for doctorates. Therefore, ensure you reference the existing literature you have used in writing your PhD proposal. Besides this, try to adopt the same referencing style as the University you’re applying to uses. You can easily find this information in the PhD Thesis formatting guidelines published on the University’s website.
Finding a PhD has never been this easy – search for a PhD by keyword, location or academic area of interest.
Here are answers to some of the most common questions we’re asked about the Research Proposal:
Yes, your PhD research proposal outlines the start of your project only. It’s well accepted that the direction of your research will develop with time, therefore, you can revise it at later dates.
Whether the potential supervisor will review your draft will depend on the individual. However, it is highly advisable that you at least attempt to discuss your draft with them. Even if they can’t review it, they may provide you with useful information regarding their department’s expertise which could help shape your PhD proposal. For example, you may amend your methodology should you come to learn that their laboratory is better equipped for an alternative method.
Ensure you follow the same order as the headings given above. This is the most logical structure and will be the order your proposed supervisor will expect.
Most universities don’t provide formatting requirements for research proposals on the basis that they are a supporting document only, however, we recommend that you follow the same format they require for their PhD thesis submissions. This will give your reader familiarity and their guidelines should be readily available on their website.
Last, try to have someone within the same academic field or discipline area to review your proposal. The key is to confirm that they understand the importance of your work and how you intend to execute it. If they don’t, it’s likely a sign you need to rewrite some of your sections to be more coherent.
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Want to make sure your research degree starts smoothly? We spoke with 2 PhD candidates about overcoming this initial hurdle. Here’s their advice for how to write a good PhD proposal.
Writing your research proposal is an integral part of commencing a PhD with many schools and institutes, so it can feel rather intimidating. After all, how you come up with your PhD proposal could be the difference between your supervisor getting on board or giving your project a miss.
Let’s explore how to make a PhD research proposal with UQ candidates Chelsea Janke and Sarah Kendall.
Look at other PhD proposals that have been successful. Ask current students if you can look at theirs.
Nobody’s asking you to reinvent the wheel when it comes to writing your PhD proposal – leave that for your actual thesis. For now, while you’re just working out how to write a PhD proposal, examples are a great starting point.
Chelsea knows this step is easier if you’ve got a friend who is already doing a PhD, but there are other ways to find a good example or template.
“Look at other PhD proposals that have been successful,” she says.
“Ask current students if you can look at theirs.”
“If you don’t know anyone doing their PhD, look online to get an idea of how they should be structured.”
What makes this tricky is that proposals can vary greatly by field and disciplinary norms, so you should check with your proposed supervisor to see if they have a specific format or list of criteria to follow. Part of writing a good PhD proposal is submitting it in a style that's familiar to the people who will read and (hopefully) become excited by it and want to bring you into their research area.
Here are some of the key factors to consider when structuring your proposal:
Please note this isn't a universal list of things you need in your PhD research proposal. Depending on your supervisor's requirements, some of these items may be unnecessary or there may be other inclusions not listed here.
Alright, here’s the thing. If sending your research proposal is your first point of contact with your prospective supervisor, you’ve jumped the gun a little.
You should have at least one researcher partially on board with your project before delving too deep into your proposal. This ensures you’re not potentially spending time and effort on an idea that no one has any appetite for. Plus, it unlocks a helpful guide who can assist with your proposal.
PhD research isn’t like Shark Tank – you’re allowed to confer with academics and secure their support before you pitch your thesis to them. Discover how to choose the right PhD supervisor for you.
For a time-efficient strategy, Chelsea recommends you approach your potential supervisor(s) and find out if:
“The best way to approach would be to send an email briefly outlining who you are, your background, and what your research interests are,” says Chelsea.
“Once you’ve spoken to a potential supervisor, then you can start drafting a proposal and you can even ask for their input.”
Chelsea's approach here works well with some academics, but keep in mind that other supervisors will want to see a research proposal straight away. If you're not sure of your proposed supervisor's preferences, you may like to cover both bases with an introductory email that has a draft of your research proposal attached.
Sarah agrees that your prospective supervisor is your most valuable resource for understanding how to write a research proposal for a PhD application.
“My biggest tip for writing a research proposal is to ask your proposed supervisor for help,” says Sarah.
“Or if this isn’t possible, ask another academic who has had experience writing research proposals.”
“They’ll be able to tell you what to include or what you need to improve on.”
One of the key aspects of your research proposal is emphasising why your project is important and should be funded.
Your PhD proposal should include your major question, your planned methods, the sources you’ll cite, and plenty of other nitty gritty details. But perhaps the most important element of your proposal is its purpose – the reason you want to do this research and why the results will be meaningful.
In Sarah’s opinion, highlighting the 'why' of your project is vital for your research proposal.
“From my perspective, one of the key aspects of your research proposal is emphasising why your project is important and should be funded,” she says.
“Not only does this impact whether your application is likely to be successful, but it could also impact your likelihood of getting a scholarship .”
Imagine you only had 60 seconds to explain your planned research to someone. Would you prefer they remember how your project could change the world, or the statistical models you’ll be using to do it? (Of course, you’ve got 2,000 words rather than 60 seconds, so do make sure to include those little details as well – just put the why stuff first.)
As a PhD candidate, your attention to detail is going to be integral to your success. Start practising it now by making sure your research proposal is perfect.
Chelsea and Sarah both acknowledge that clarity and writing quality should never be overlooked in a PhD proposal. This starts with double-checking that the questions of your thesis are obvious and unambiguous, followed by revising the rest of your proposal.
“Make sure your research questions are really clear,” says Sarah.
“Ensure all the writing is clear and grammatically correct,” adds Chelsea.
“A supervisor is not going to be overly keen on a prospective student if their writing is poor.”
It might sound harsh, but it’s fair. So, proofread your proposal multiple times – including after you get it back from your supervisor with any feedback and notes. When you think you’ve got the final, FINAL draft saved, sleep on it and read it one more time the next morning.
Still feeling a little overwhelmed by your research proposal? Stay motivated with these reasons why a PhD is worth the effort .
Want to learn more from Chelsea and Sarah? Easy:
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Find guidance on how to write your PhD research proposal and a template form for you to use to submit your research proposal.
By asking you for an outline research proposal we hope to get a good picture of your research interests and your understanding of what such research is likely to entail.
The University's application form is designed to enable you to give an overview of your academic experience and qualifications for study at postgraduate level. Your outline research proposal then gives us an idea of the kind of research you want to undertake. This, together with information from your referees, will help us assess whether the Moray House School of Education and Sport would be the appropriate place for you to pursue your research interests.
At the application stage, you are unlikely to be in a position to provide a comprehensive research proposal; the detailed shaping up of a research plan would be done in conjunction with your supervisor(s). But it is important for us to appreciate what you are hoping to investigate, how you plan to carry out the research, and what the results might be expected to contribute to current knowledge and understanding in the relevant academic field(s) of study. In writing your proposal, please indicate any prior academic or employment experience relevant to your planned research.
In your research proposal, please also ensure that you clearly identify the Moray House research cluster your proposal falls under, as well as two to three staff members with expertise in this area. We also encourage you to contact potential supervisors within your area of proposed research before submitting your application to gauge their interest and availability.
The description of your proposed research should consist of 4-5 typed A4 sheets. It can take whatever form seems best, but should include some information about the following:
In addition to the above, please include any comments you are able to make concerning:
Please note: This guidance applies to all candidates, except those applying to conduct PhD research as part of a larger, already established research project (for example, in the Institute for Sport, Physical Education & Health Sciences).
In this case, you should provide a two- to three-page description of a research project you have undertaken, to complement information in the application form. If you are in any doubt as to what is appropriate, please contact us:
Email: Education@[email protected]
All doctoral proposals submitted as part of an application will be run through plagiarism detection software.
All applicants for a PhD or MSc by Research must submit a research proposal as part of their application. Applicants must use the template form below for their research proposal. This research proposal should then be submitted online as part of your application. Please use Calibri size 11 font size and do not change the paragraph spacing (single, with 6pt after each paragraph) or the page margins.
An Oxford PhD proposal sample, like Oxford personal statement examples , should give you an idea of how to structure and write your own PhD proposal, which is a key element of how to get into grad school . Should you pursue a master's or PhD , you should know that, with few exceptions, all graduate programs require that applicants submit a research proposal. It can vary in length (usually between 1,000 and 3,000 words) and must outline your main research goals and methods and demonstrate your facility with the topic. The almost 35,000 applications Oxford received in a recent year should give you some idea of how competitive getting into a master's or PhD program is.
Writing a stellar proposal is important to make your application stand out, so, to that end, this article will show you an expert-approved Oxford PhD proposal sample based on the actual requirements of an Oxford graduate program.
>> Want us to help you get accepted? Schedule a free initial consultation here <<
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Oxford phd proposal sample.
PhD Program : DPhil in Migrant Studies
Research Proposal Length: minimum 2000 - maximum 3000 words
To: Matthew J. Gibney, Professor of Politics and Forced Migration
Name: Adrian Toews
Title: Wired and Hungry Masses: Social Media, Migrants and Cultural Bereavement in the Digital Sphere
Proposed Research Topic: Does social media help migrants cross the cultural barriers of their adopted home and succeed in helping them preserve touchstones of their home culture?
Abstract: The ascendance of social media platforms has increased and, strangely, decreased interconnectedness among disparate groups in society. But, while social media has been implicated, rightly, as a catalyst for the rise of disinformation, hate speech, and other anti-social behaviors, I would argue that its ubiquity and prevalence provide those experiencing cultural bereavement with a more-effective coping mechanism, as social media is able to replicate, in a non-physical space, the culturally specific mechanisms they know and which, prior to digital communications, could not be replicated in new, adopted countries and cultures.
Objective: I want to present social media as an informal networking tool, expressive outlet, and cultural road map with which migrants who are experiencing cultural bereavement can engage for two specific reasons: 1) to assuage the grief that accompanies anyone who has left their homeland as a migrant or refugee, and 2) to help them assimilate into their new identity by giving them a window into the cultural norms and practices of their new country or culture.
An Oxford PhD proposal sample like this one is only one version of what a proposal can look like, but it should contain at least these basic elements. You should know how to choose a PhD topic at this point in your career, but if you still feel like you need help, then you can hire PhD admission consultants to help you choose your topic and research interests.
Above all, you should know why you want to do a PhD . Answering this question first will be effective in helping you ultimately decide on a program, which can then make it easier for you to write any number of different doctorate-related texts, such as a PhD motivation letter and a statement of intent .
Understanding your true motivations, passions, and research interests is doubly important when pursuing a PhD since you do not want to invest so much time and resources in a subject you are only partially interested in. If you can honestly answer why you want to pursue a PhD, you can then take concrete steps toward defining your research goals and how they can be fulfilled by the program you choose.
Your Oxford PhD proposal should adhere to the requirements set forth by the program you wish to enter. Regardless of your discipline or field, almost all PhD programs at Oxford require that you submit a research proposal of between 2,000 and 3,000 words.
A statement of intent is another type of essay that applicants are often asked to submit to graduate schools. It involves talking about your past academic experiences and achievements, what you intend to do in graduate school, and why you want to go there. A PhD proposal, on the other hand, contains no personal details or experiences.
Instead, a PhD proposal should be a focused, concrete road map built around a specific research question. In your proposal, you list the theoretical approaches that you are going to use, research methods, past scholarship on the same topic, and other investigative tools to answer this question or present evidence from this research to support your argument.
A statement of purpose is another common essay that graduate school applicants must submit. The line between a statement of purpose and a statement of intent is a fine one, but the line between a statement of purpose and a PhD proposal is much more prominent, and there is no mistaking the two. So, you should not read over graduate school statement of purpose examples to learn how to write a PhD proposal.
A statement of purpose can also be research-focused, but in an undefined way. A PhD proposal combines theory and practice and requires that you demonstrate your knowledge of proper scientific research, investigative methods, and the existing literature on your topic.
You should include a title page where you list your name, the program you are applying to, and a title for your research project. You should address it to a specific faculty member, who can perhaps, if they agree, show you how to prepare for a thesis defense . The proposal itself should include an abstract, an overview of the existing scholarship on your topic, research questions, methods, and a bibliography listing all your sources.
The usual length of PhD proposals is between 1,000 and 3,000 words, but your program may have different requirements, which you should always follow.
There are up to 350 different graduate programs at Oxford, all with their own particular requirements, so the university does not set forth a universal set of requirements for all graduate programs. Many of these programs and their affiliated schools offer students advice on how to write a PhD proposal, but there are few, if any, stated requirements other than the implied ones, which are that you have familiarity with how to conduct graduate-level research and are knowledgeable in the field you are researching.
A majority of programs do, yes. There are always exceptions, but a fundamental part of pursuing a PhD involves research and investigation, so it is normal for any PhD program to require that applicants write a PhD proposal.
It is quite possible for your research interests and direction to change during your research, but you should not be discouraged. Graduate programs understand that these things happen, but you should still do your best to reflect the current state of research on your topic and try to anticipate any changes or sudden shifts in direction while you research.
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Table of Contents
Before conducting a study, a research proposal should be created that outlines researchers’ plans and methodology and is submitted to the concerned evaluating organization or person. Creating a research proposal is an important step to ensure that researchers are on track and are moving forward as intended. A research proposal can be defined as a detailed plan or blueprint for the proposed research that you intend to undertake. It provides readers with a snapshot of your project by describing what you will investigate, why it is needed, and how you will conduct the research.
Your research proposal should aim to explain to the readers why your research is relevant and original, that you understand the context and current scenario in the field, have the appropriate resources to conduct the research, and that the research is feasible given the usual constraints.
This article will describe in detail the purpose and typical structure of a research proposal , along with examples and templates to help you ace this step in your research journey.
A research proposal¹ ,² can be defined as a formal report that describes your proposed research, its objectives, methodology, implications, and other important details. Research proposals are the framework of your research and are used to obtain approvals or grants to conduct the study from various committees or organizations. Consequently, research proposals should convince readers of your study’s credibility, accuracy, achievability, practicality, and reproducibility.
With research proposals , researchers usually aim to persuade the readers, funding agencies, educational institutions, and supervisors to approve the proposal. To achieve this, the report should be well structured with the objectives written in clear, understandable language devoid of jargon. A well-organized research proposal conveys to the readers or evaluators that the writer has thought out the research plan meticulously and has the resources to ensure timely completion.
A research proposal is a sales pitch and therefore should be detailed enough to convince your readers, who could be supervisors, ethics committees, universities, etc., that what you’re proposing has merit and is feasible . Research proposals can help students discuss their dissertation with their faculty or fulfill course requirements and also help researchers obtain funding. A well-structured proposal instills confidence among readers about your ability to conduct and complete the study as proposed.
Research proposals can be written for several reasons:³
Research proposals should aim to answer the three basic questions—what, why, and how.
The What question should be answered by describing the specific subject being researched. It should typically include the objectives, the cohort details, and the location or setting.
The Why question should be answered by describing the existing scenario of the subject, listing unanswered questions, identifying gaps in the existing research, and describing how your study can address these gaps, along with the implications and significance.
The How question should be answered by describing the proposed research methodology, data analysis tools expected to be used, and other details to describe your proposed methodology.
Here is a research proposal sample template (with examples) from the University of Rochester Medical Center. 4 The sections in all research proposals are essentially the same although different terminology and other specific sections may be used depending on the subject.
If you want to know how to make a research proposal impactful, include the following components:¹
1. Introduction
This section provides a background of the study, including the research topic, what is already known about it and the gaps, and the significance of the proposed research.
2. Literature review
This section contains descriptions of all the previous relevant studies pertaining to the research topic. Every study cited should be described in a few sentences, starting with the general studies to the more specific ones. This section builds on the understanding gained by readers in the Introduction section and supports it by citing relevant prior literature, indicating to readers that you have thoroughly researched your subject.
3. Objectives
Once the background and gaps in the research topic have been established, authors must now state the aims of the research clearly. Hypotheses should be mentioned here. This section further helps readers understand what your study’s specific goals are.
4. Research design and methodology
Here, authors should clearly describe the methods they intend to use to achieve their proposed objectives. Important components of this section include the population and sample size, data collection and analysis methods and duration, statistical analysis software, measures to avoid bias (randomization, blinding), etc.
5. Ethical considerations
This refers to the protection of participants’ rights, such as the right to privacy, right to confidentiality, etc. Researchers need to obtain informed consent and institutional review approval by the required authorities and mention this clearly for transparency.
6. Budget/funding
Researchers should prepare their budget and include all expected expenditures. An additional allowance for contingencies such as delays should also be factored in.
7. Appendices
This section typically includes information that supports the research proposal and may include informed consent forms, questionnaires, participant information, measurement tools, etc.
8. Citations
Writing a research proposal begins much before the actual task of writing. Planning the research proposal structure and content is an important stage, which if done efficiently, can help you seamlessly transition into the writing stage. 3,5
Key Takeaways
Here’s a summary of the main points about research proposals discussed in the previous sections:
Q1. How is a research proposal evaluated?
A1. In general, most evaluators, including universities, broadly use the following criteria to evaluate research proposals . 6
Q2. What is the difference between the Introduction and Literature Review sections in a research proposal ?
A2. The Introduction or Background section in a research proposal sets the context of the study by describing the current scenario of the subject and identifying the gaps and need for the research. A Literature Review, on the other hand, provides references to all prior relevant literature to help corroborate the gaps identified and the research need.
Q3. How long should a research proposal be?
A3. Research proposal lengths vary with the evaluating authority like universities or committees and also the subject. Here’s a table that lists the typical research proposal lengths for a few universities.
Arts programs | 1,000-1,500 | |
University of Birmingham | Law School programs | 2,500 |
PhD | 2,500 | |
2,000 | ||
Research degrees | 2,000-3,500 |
Q4. What are the common mistakes to avoid in a research proposal ?
A4. Here are a few common mistakes that you must avoid while writing a research proposal . 7
Thus, a research proposal is an essential document that can help you promote your research and secure funds and grants for conducting your research. Consequently, it should be well written in clear language and include all essential details to convince the evaluators of your ability to conduct the research as proposed.
This article has described all the important components of a research proposal and has also provided tips to improve your writing style. We hope all these tips will help you write a well-structured research proposal to ensure receipt of grants or any other purpose.
References
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How to write a phd research proposal.
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Creating a focused and well-written research proposal - a concise and coherent summary of your proposed research - is an essential part of a successful PhD application.
A research proposal is normally required for self-funded PhDs (where you develop your own idea for a thesis), but isn't usually needed for funded studentships or pre-defined research projects.
A research proposal sets out the central issues or questions that you intend to address. It outlines the general area of study within which your research falls, referring to the current state of knowledge and any recent debates on the topic. It should also demonstrate the originality of your proposed research.
As a guide, research proposals should be around 2,000-3,000 words and contain:
Crucially, it is also an opportunity for you to communicate your passion for the subject area and to make a persuasive argument about the impact your project can achieve.
Your research proposal will be assessed by our academic schools to assess the quality of your proposed research and to establish whether they have the expertise to support your proposed area of PhD study.
The University’s English Language Centre (ELC) provides thesis writing support for international PhD students. Classes run throughout semesters one and two and are designed to help develop the academic writing skills needed to write up research effectively.
The sessions are taught by tutors with their own research experience. They have PhDs themselves and have many years of experience in analysing writing in different disciplines.
The course also provides an opportunity for students to receive individual feedback on samples of their own writing.
The following classes are available:
In addition to these thesis writing classes, the ELC also provides a 1:1 Academic Writing Consultation service.
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How to write a phd proposal.
We are delighted to consider applications for PhD research. We have a fantastic, diverse and energetic student body who are making the most of fabulous resources for postgraduate students. We welcome you to join us.
In order to help you with your application, the information below aims to give some guidance on how a typical research proposal might look.
Please be aware that if you are applying for ESRC funding then the proposal must be no longer than 1,300 words , and if you are applying for University of Bristol Postgraduate Research Scholarship then the proposal must be no longer than 1,000 words (incl. footnotes).
Your aim here is to showcase your ability to carry out postgraduate research. PhD research often travels and what you apply to study for may differ from your ultimate PhD. It is perfectly acceptable for research to move over time in response to findings or changes in preference/supervision.
Please note: we do not generally have the expertise to supervise PhD proposals that are exclusively in a jurisdiction outside UK, EU or international law. We have many expert supervisors in comparative, international and regional law but if your proposal is only to study the law in your home country, we may not be able to offer you supervision even if you meet the admission requirements.
Title. A short, indicative title is best.
Abstract. This is a succinct summary of your research proposal that will present a condensed outline, enabling the reader to get a very quick overview of your proposed project, lines of inquiry and possible outcomes. An abstract is often written last, after you have written the proposal and are able to summarise it effectively.
Rationale for the research project. This might include a description of the question/debate/phenomenon of interest, and the context(s) and situation in which you think the research will take place; an explanation of why the topic is of interest to you; and an outline of the reasons why the topic should be of interest to research and/ or practice (the 'so what?' question).
Issues and initial research question. What legal or governance question(s) do you intend to investigate? (This may be quite imprecise at the application stage); what might be some of the key literatures that might inform the issues (again, indicative at the application stage); and, as precisely as you can, what is the question you are trying to answer? A research proposal can and should make a positive and persuasive first impression and demonstrate your potential to become a good researcher. In particular, you need to demonstrate that you can think critically and analytically as well as communicate your ideas clearly.
Intended methodology. How do you think you might go about answering the question? At Bristol we supervise an incredibly wide range of PhDs, including doctrinal, theoretical, empirical, historical, comparative or policy-focused work. Even if your methods are, for example, doctrinal, please do make this clear and give some indication why you think this is the best methodology for your proposed study. If you have a key theorist in mind, do please outline this in your application, together with some understanding of any critiques that have been raised. If you are planning to do empirical work, do please give some indication of what your methods might be (quantitative (surveys, statistics etc); qualitative (interviews, ethnography etc)
Expected outcomes and impact. How do you think the research might add to existing knowledge; what might it enable organisations or interested parties to do differently? Increasingly in academia (and this is particularly so for ESRC-funded studentships) PhD students are being asked to consider how their research might contribute to both academic impact and/or economic and societal impact . This is well explained on the ESRC website if you would like to find out more.
Timetable. What is your initial estimation of the timetable of the dissertation? When will each of the key stages start and finish (refining proposal; literature review; developing research methods; fieldwork; analysis; writing the draft; final submission). There are likely to overlaps between the stages.
Why Bristol? Why –specifically - do you want to study for your PhD at Bristol? How would you fit into our research themes and research culture (please see the ’10 reasons to study for a PhD at Bristol’ section on the website for more information). You do not need to identify supervisors at the application stage.
Bibliography. Do make sure that you cite what you see as the key readings in the field. This does not have to be comprehensive but you are illustrating the range of sources you might use in your research.
A number of scholarships are available to study for a PhD at Bristol. You can see more information regarding scholarships on our fees and funding page. If you have any questions about which scholarship to apply for and how your research might fit in please contact the PGR Director, Yvette Russell [email protected] .
Feb 27, 2019
Here, we show you how to write a PhD proposal that will stand out from the hundreds of others that are submitted each day.
Before we do though, know one thing :
The research you describe when you write your PhD proposal won’t look anything like the research you finally write up in your PhD thesis.
Wait, what ?
That’s not a typo. Everyone’s research changes over time. If you knew everything when you were writing up your proposal there wouldn’t be any point doing the PhD at all.
So, what’s the point of the proposal?
Your proposal is a guide, not a contract . It is a plan for your research that is necessarily flexible. That’s why it changes over time.
This means that the proposal is less about the robustness of your proposed research design and more about showing that you have
1. Critical thinking skills
2. An adequate grasp of the existing literature and know how your research will contribute to it
3. Clear direction and objectives. You get this by formulating clear research questions
4. Appropriate methods. This shows that you can link your understanding of the literature, research design and theory
5. An understanding of what’s required in a PhD
6. Designed a project that is feasible
Use our free PhD structure template to quickly visualise every element of your thesis.
Your PhD proposal is submitted as part of your application to a PhD program. It is a standard means of assessing your potential as a doctoral researcher.
When stripped down to its basic components, it does two things:
Explains the ‘what’- t hese are the questions you will address and the outcomes you expect
Explains the ‘why’- t his is the case for your research, with a focus on why the research is significant and what the contributions will be.
It is used by potential supervisors and department admission tutors to assess the quality and originality of your research ideas, how good you are at critical thinking and how feasible your proposed study is.
This means that it needs to showcase your expertise and your knowledge of the existing field and how your research contributes to it. You use it to make a persuasive case that your research is interesting and significant enough to warrant the university’s investment.
Above all though, it is about showcasing your passion for your discipline . A PhD is a hard, long journey. The admissions tutor want to know that you have both the skills and the resilience required.
Exactly what needs to be included when you write your PhD proposal will vary from university to university. How long your proposal needs to be may also be specified by your university, but if it isn’t, aim for three thousand words.
Check the requirements for each university you are applying for carefully.
Having said that, almost all proposals will need to have four distinct sections.
2. the research context.
3. The approach you take
4. Conclusion
In the first few paragraphs of your proposal, you need to clearly and concisely state your research questions, the gap in the literature your study will address, the significance of your research and the contribution that the study makes.
Be as clear and concise as you can be. Make the reader’s job as easy as possible by clearly stating what the proposed research will investigate, what the contribution is and why the study is worthwhile.
This isn’t the place for lots of explanatory detail. You don’t need to justify particular design decisions in the introduction, just state what they are. The justification comes later.
In this section, you discuss the existing literature and the gaps that exist within it.
The goal here is to show that you understand the existing literature in your field, what the gaps are and how your proposed study will address them. We’ve written a guide that will help you to conduct and write a literature review .
Chances are, you won’t have conducted a complete literature review, so the emphasis here should be on the more important and well-known research in your field. Don’t worry that you haven’t read everything. Your admissions officer won’t have expected you to. Instead, they want to see that you know the following:
1. What are the most important authors, findings, concepts, schools, debates and hypotheses?
2. What gaps exist in the literature?
3. How does your thesis fill these gaps?
Once you have laid out the context, you will be in a position to make your thesis statement . A thesis statement is a sentence that summarises your argument to the reader. It is the ‘point’ you will want to make with your proposed research.
Remember, the emphasis in the PhD proposal is on what you intend to do, not on results. You won’t have results until you finish your study. That means that your thesis statement will be speculative, rather than a statement of fact.
For more on how to construct thesis statements, read this excellent guide from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill who, incidentally, run a great academic writing blog you should definitely visit.
This is the section in which you discuss the overall research design and is the most important component of the proposal. The emphasis here is on five things.
1. The overall approach taken (is it purely theoretical, or does it involve primary or empirical research? Maybe it’s both theoretical and empirical?)
2. The theoretical perspective you will use when you design and conduct your research
3. Why you have chosen this approach over others and what implications this choice has for your methods and the robustness of the study
4. Your specific aims and objectives
5. Your research methodology
In the previous section you outlined the context. In this section you explain the specific detail of what your research will look like.
You take the brief research design statements you made in the introduction and go into much more detail. You need to be relating your design decisions back to the literature and context discussion in the previous section.
The emphasis here is on showing that there is a logical flow. There’s no point highlighting a gap in the literature and then designing a study that doesn’t fill it.
Some of the detail here will only become clear once you have started the actual research. That’s fine. The emphasis in your proposal should be on showing that you understand what goes into a PhD.
So, keep it general.
For example, when talking about your methodology, keep things deliberately broad and focus on the overarching strategy. For example, if you are using interviews, you don’t need to list every single proposed interview question. Instead, you can talk about the rough themes you will discuss (which will relate to your literature review and thesis/project statement). Similarly, unless your research is specifically focusing on particular individuals, you don’t need to list exactly who you will interview. Instead, just state the types of people you will interview (for example: local politicians, or athletes, or academics in the UK, and so on).
There are a number of key elements to a proposal that you will need to put in the final paragraphs.
These include:
1. A discussion on the limitations of the study
2. A reiteration of your contribution
3. A proposed chapter structure (this can be an appendix)
4. Proposed month-by-month timetable (this can also be an appendix). The purpose of this timetable is to show that you understand every stage required and how long each stage takes relative to others.
1. be critical.
When you are making your design decisions in section three, you need to do so critically. Critical thinking is a key requirement of entry onto a PhD programme. In brief, it means not taking things at face value and questioning what you read or do. You can read our guide to being critical for help (it focuses on the literature review, but the take home points are the same).
This is something that many people get wrong. You need to ease the reader in gradually . Present a brief, clear statement in the introduction and then gradually introduce more information as the pages roll on.
You will see that the outline we have suggested above follows an inverted pyramid shape.
1. In section one, you present the headlines in the introductory paragraphs. These are the research questions, aims, objectives, contribution and problem statement. State these without context or explanation.
2. When discussing the research context in section two, you provide a little more background. The goal here is to introduce the reader to the literature and highlight the gaps.
3. When describing the approach you will take, you present more detailed information. The goal here is to talk in very precise terms about how your research will address these gaps, the implications of these choices and your expected findings.
Don’t pretend you know more than you do and don’t try to reinvent your discipline .
A good proposal is one that is very focused and that describes research that is very feasible. If you try to design a study to revolutionise your field, you will not be accepted because doing so shows that you don’t understand what is feasible in the context of a PhD and you haven’t understood the literature.
Describe your research as clearly as possible in the opening couple of paragraphs. Then write in short, clear sentences. Avoid using complex sentences where possible. If you need to introduce technical terminology, clearly define things.
In other words, make the reader’s job as easy as possible.
We’ve written a post on why you need a proofreader .
Simple: you are the worst person to proofread your own work.
A lot of students fail to do this. Your supervisor isn’t your enemy. You can work with them to refine your proposal. Don’t be afraid to reach out for comments and suggestions. Be careful though. Don’t expect them to come up with topics or questions for you. Their input should be focused on refining your ideas, not helping you come up with them.
Admissions tutors can spot when you have submitted a one-size-fits-all proposal. Try and tailor it to the individual department. You can do this by talking about how you will contribute to the department and why you have chosen to apply there.
Follow this guide and you’ll be on a PhD programme in no time at all.
If you’re struggling for inspiration on topics or research design, try writing a rough draft of your proposal. Often the act of writing is enough for us to brainstorm new ideas and relate existing ideas to one another.
If you’re still struggling, send your idea to us in an email to us and we’ll give you our feedback.
Sounds good, doesn’t it? Be able to call yourself Doctor sooner with our five-star rated How to Write A PhD email-course. Learn everything your supervisor should have taught you about planning and completing a PhD.
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13 comments.
A wonderful guide. I must say not only well written but very well thought out and very efficient.
Great. I’m glad you think so.
Thanks for sharing. Makes navigating through the proposal lot easier
Great. Glad you think so!
An excellent guide, I learned a lot thank you
Great job and guide for a PhD proposal. Thank you!
You’re welcome!
I am going to start writing my Ph.D. proposal. This has been so helpful in instructing me on what to do. Thanks
Thanks! Glad you thought so.
A very reassuring guide to the process. Thank you, Max
I appreciate the practical advice and actionable steps you provide in your posts.
Glad to hear it. Many thanks.
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Most popular articles from the phd knowlege base.
One of the toughest things to do when it comes to completing a voluminous and challenging PhD research project is the proposal. The thing about the PhD research proposal is that you have to encapsulate everything that you want to accomplish, communicate in a concise way what you want to do, the resources that it will require, and finally you have to convince the reader of the viability and necessity of the project. It isn’t easy to know where to begin with something like this, but with the help of a PhD research proposal example from our professional PhD writing service, it’s easier than ever! We’ve got a wide range of samples made by doctoral proposal writer that you can take advantage of to learn all the ins and outs of crafting the highest quality proposal.
Nevertheless, if you have some questions or our professional example research proposal cannot help you, you can always buy research proposal . No matter what the subject or specifications of your proposal are, we provide you with a top-quality paper that will be quickly approved!
If you need some help with PhD investigation, you may use these samples for writing. Another smart solution is to pick a sample research proposal with comments from an expert. Such samples are just to give you some idea about writing the research proposal. However, if you are still confused or facing some time constraints to write PhD proposal, we are here to help you. Our team of experts has vast experience and expertise to write a perfect research proposal for your needs. Moreover, we can help you choose the most relevant research proposal topics , write a paper from scratch, or improve the existing one. No matter what your subject is, we have the subject specialist on every subject, who have years of experience of writing research proposals. We ensure fresh and unique work, which is 100% plagiarism free. Each student is special to us, and we ensure your personal and work details will be kept secret. We can also help you to meet your short deadlines. With the lightning-fast experts on the board, our PhD proposal writing service accepts even last-minute tasks, delivering high-quality outcomes on time or even earlier, leaving enough time for revisions and comments from your supervisor. Get your PhD research proposal without any hassle, contact us Now!
The dynamics of hyperinflation and stabilization policies – the case of zimbabwe.
The dynamics of hyperinflation and stabilization policies
The running of the country can be viewed commercially as a business enterprise by the economists. The business needs to be run in equilibrium; a balance between supply and demand must be stricken if the entrepreneur or the owner of the enterprise is to enjoy any benefits accrued by running a business. In the case of a country, it should be governed in a way that that the prices of goods and services are kept in control. The stakeholders must not let the prices escalate beyond the ability of a typical citizen. Similarly, the release of cash into the economy should be maintained so that the flow of money is monitored and controlled, hence preserving the value of that particular currency.
This proposal will dig into inflation and find out how inflation has affected economies of a country, in particular, Zimbabwe and the ways to stabilize this condition. The dynamics of hyperinflation will also be looked into in detail to bring out the real picture and the damages it causes to an economy. The proposal will also focus on the causes of inflation in Zimbabwe and the how the theories of hyperinflation have applied in this context. The proposal will also look at the quantity theory of money and how it is associated with hyperinflation.
Introduction
Hyperinflation can be defined as a situation where the prices of goods and services escalate beyond control that the concept of inflation is an understatement. Economically, hyperinflation can be defined to occur when the total inflation over a period of three years is equivalent or exceeds 100%. Countries in hyperinflation usually experience rapid erosion of the real value of local currency prompting the population to hold a relatively stable foreign currency.
Hyperinflation makes the prices of goods and services in an economy to rise rapidly since the value of the local currency loses the real value quickly. Zimbabwe has experienced hyperinflation since 2001 with inflation rates over a whopping 100%. However, as from 2006, inflation in Zimbabwe has risen to an uncontrollable 1500% annually. It should be observed that Zimbabwe was the only country that was experiencing hyperinflation and the first in the 21st century to have hyperinflation. Inflation in Zimbabwe has been perceived in two ways. First, the private sector speculation which the Zimbabwean authorities argue that the private sector rises up the prices intentionally to maximize profits on to pile pressure on the economy through ruthless price increments.
Secondly, the authorities also believe that the withdrawal of aids and the international economic sanctions have led to an economic decline from the year 2000. This perception has the explanation that the printing and minting of excess money by the government is usually tailored to bridge the gap between the government revenue and the actual receipts. This proposal to examine these concepts in depth.
Literature review
In this section, the Cagan (1956) hyperinflation model will be examined, where he assessed the statistical connection between cash and changes in price by conducting instances of hyperinflation in six different countries across Europe. According to Cagan, the demand for money balances declined with increase in inflation, assuming inflation played a significant role in determining hyperinflation.
Milton Friedman bases his view of hyperinflation in quantity theory of money. This theory states that the relationship between money and the price level is directly proportional. This relationship implies that inflation will increase with an increase in money supply and the continued trend will lead to hyperinflation. In Zimbabwe, the supply of money and the prices of goods and services increased in tandem, as per the quantity theory of money because people opted to use the available cash immediately, rather than to wait on the depreciating cash. This, in turn, led to the increase of velocity as well as an increase of money through the printing of new currency, hence the exponential increase in prices of goods and services in Zimbabwe.
Methodology
This proposal will seek to clarify the mechanisms through which money, the setting of price behavior and the requirements of government revenue collaborate in Zimbabwe, to examine the explanations put forth by the authorities about the hyperinflation in Zimbabwe. To achieve this goal, the proposal will look at various models and tests that will lead to the understanding of the hyperinflation.
Granger causality test
In general, it is obvious that money engenders the rate of inflation, but the reverse could also be claimed to be true. It can be said that hyperinflation has self-perpetuating tendencies, due to the fact that the rise in prices of goods and services results in the rise in demand for nominal cash. Thus, causation develops from inflation to supply of money. This test investigates the amount of the existing value of money and premium is a utilizable component in the prediction of inflation.
Theoretical model
This model provides the classical quantity theory of money which believes that institutional factors determine the rate of money circulation. The economy is assumed to be or close to the real GDP. In this case, the growth of money does not have an effect in the real GDP. This implies that holding both variables constant, the growth rate of money is directly proportional to the rate of inflation. Inflation reduces money demand due to an increase in the opportunity cost of holding money. Hyperinflation in Zimbabwe increased the parallel market premium and consequently, a change in the parallel market premium affected the velocity of cash in the circulation. The data used here was derived from various sources including the website of the RBZ.
The inflation data and money supply were collected from RBZ while parallel exchange rate was collected from Carmen M. Reinhart, a Harvard Kennedy School Professor of the International Financial System. The methodology in this paper employs heavily the ARDL co-integration approach for investigating the relationship between the inflation and its determinants. ARDL was used because it has several advantages over other models of co-integration. ARDL can be used with time series data, can also be employed in a general-to-specific modeling by including insufficient numbers to lags for the data generating and error correction model (ECM) can be derived using ARDL co-integration model.
Theoretical/conceptual framework
Lagged change in the inflation and money supply growth are insignificant in the ARDL framework. Moreover, the ever-increasing prices are not unsustainable in the long-run; hence using the concept of long-run relations could give incorrect results. Zimbabwe had almost all her prices listed in foreign currencies which fully wrote off inflation inertia. In this case, an exchange rate is a useful tool for curbing inflation rates thereby making stabilization of hyperinflation less costly in comparison to moderate methods of dealing with hyperinflation. Through Ordinary Least Squares method, hyperinflation in Zimbabwe is said o have been caused by the rapid growth of paper money. The money demand model will seek to find out if this result is consistent. Additionally, a unit increase in the parallel market premium will result in an equivalent change in inflation.
High rates of interest will deter borrowing and foster saving, slowing the economy and hence disinflationary effects. The Treasury bill by the Zimbabwe government had turned the interest rates negative and this manipulation discouraged savings by the households. As per the Quantity Theory of money, hyperinflation in Zimbabwe could have been a monetary phenomenon and the only way to curb it would be to constrain the unnecessary money supply growth.
Research plan
Hyperinflation in Zimbabwe had severe adverse effects on the economy in regard to wealth, savings and deposits. Prices of essential goods and services became unreachable, especially to those on inflexible incomes. Countermeasures including price controls and foreign currencies ban to control the then escalating levels of inflation and the devaluation of the Zimbabwean currency were taken. Zimbabwe’s hyperinflation was at its peak when the government compelled the RBZ to issue banknotes of higher denominations, hence fuelling the rate of inflation. The Zimbabwean dollar value diminished at a faster rate and the RBZ could not keep up with the printing. This led to the abandonment of the Zimbabwean dollar in favor of the US dollar as well as the SA Rand.
This study aimed at finding the causes of hyperinflation in Zimbabwe by using the right econometric models. Its main aim is to find out if the growth of money has a positive effect on inflation. Additionally, it will be aimed at finding out whether the parallel market premium is directly proportional to the growth of inflation. Whether money supply is the primary driver of hyperinflation in Zimbabwe, the findings of the research will provide the answer.
Works cited
BBC News,. ‘Zimbabwe Abandons Its Currency’. N.p., 2014. Web. 29 Dec. 2014.
Cato Institute,. ‘Measurements of Zimbabwe’s Hyperinflation’. N.p., 2014. Web. 29 Dec. 2014.
Larochelle, C., J. Alwang, and N. Taruvinga. ‘Inter-Temporal Changes In Well-Being During Conditions Of Hyperinflation: Evidence From Zimbabwe’. Journal of African Economies 23.2 (2014): 225-256. Web.
McIndoe Calder, Tara. ‘Hyperinflation In Zimbabwe: Money Demand, Seigniorage And Aid Shocks’. SSRN Journal n. pag. Web.
Makochekanwa, A. ‘A Dynamic Enquiry Into The Causes Of Hyperinflation In Zimbabwe’. The University of Pretoria, Department of Economics (2007): n. pag. Print. Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe (RBZ),. ‘Bank Annual Reports From 2000-2008’. N.p., 2008. Web. 29 Dec. 2014
Sokic, Alexandre. ‘The Monetary Analysis Of Hyperinflation And The Appropriate Specification Of The Demand For Money’. German Economic Review 13.2 (2011): 142-160. Web.
Works, Anchor. ‘Data’. Carmenreinhart.com. N.p., 2014. Web. 29 Dec. 2014.
You can also take a look at our guide for writing an interpretive thesis if you feel like you’re struggling to write on your own. So check it out! You can also find out more helpful examples of research proposals if you contact us.
Understanding users of online energy efficiency counseling: comparison to representative samples in norway.
Introduction: To achieve substantial energy efficiency improvements in the privately owned building stock, it is important to communicate with potential renovators at the right point in time and provide them with targeted information to strengthen their renovation ambitions. The European Union recommends using one-stop-shops (OSSs), which provide information and support throughout the whole process, from planning to acquisition of funding, implementation, and evaluation as a measure to remove unnecessary barriers.
Methods: For this paper, we invited visitors of two Norwegian websites with OSS characteristics to answer an online survey about their renovation plans and energy efficiency ambitions. The participants visited the websites out of their own interest; no recruitment for the websites was conducted as part of the study ( N = 437). They also rated a range of psychological drivers, facilitators, and barriers to including energy upgrades in a renovation project. Their answers were then compared to existing data from representative samples of Norwegian households regarding home renovation in 2014, 2018, and 2023, as well as data from a sample of people who were engaged in renovation projects in 2014, which was collected by the research team with a similar online survey. Furthermore, 78 visitors completed a brief follow-up online survey one year later to report the implemented measures.
Results: We found that visitors of the websites are involved in more comprehensive renovation projects and have substantially higher ambitions for the upgrade of energy efficiency compared to the representative samples. They also perceive stronger personal and social norms, as well as have a different profile of facilitators and barriers.
Discussion: The findings suggest to policymakers that OSSs should be marketed especially to people motivated to upgrade energy efficiency but lack information and are unable to implement their plans alone. Also, the construction industry might refer interested people to such low-threshold online solutions to assist informed and more ambitious decisions.
Reducing energy use in the building sector by increasing energy efficiency is a key pillar of decarbonising Europe as formulated in the EU’s “Fit for 55” legislation ( Schlacke et al., 2022 , 4). On a global level, the residential sector is the third largest energy consumer, representing 27–30% of the energy consumption, almost at the same level as transportation and industry ( Nejat et al., 2015 , 843; IEA, 2023 ). Also in Europe, the residential sector stands for 26% of final energy consumption, being the second largest consumption sector after transportation ( Tsemekidi et al., 2019 , 1). Whereas the primary energy consumption in the residential sector decreased by 4.6% between 2000 and 2016 ( Tsemekidi et al., 2019 , 9), there is still a substantial untapped potential for further improvement of energy efficiency in the sector. This can be achieved through energy efficiency renovation of the existing building stock ( Pohoryles et al., 2020 , 11–12). Realizing this potential requires that also private house owners invest in energy efficiency measures. However, the annual rate of housing renovation in Europe is only about 1% ( Biere-Arenas and Marmolejo-Duarte, 2022 , 185), which is far too slow to reach the ambitious energy conservation targets. Besides, not all of those renovations include energy efficiency improvements. This raises the question of how property owners make decisions about renovating and energy efficiency measures and how they can be efficiently supported in these processes. To alleviate this problem, one-stop-shops (OSS), which are places where interested citizens can get counseling and support for the whole process of an energy retrofit, have gained a lot of attention lately as a means to support citizens in the matter of energy retrofits also from the European Union (as for example reflected in recently finished EU projects like “EUROPE one stop” or “ProRetro”).
Bertoldi et al. (2021 , 3–12) analysed the role of OSSs across Europe. They concluded that OSSs may be able to address some of the main barriers that households face when deciding about energy efficiency renovations. Often, these barriers can be categorized as economic (upfront costs, need for loan, split incentives between landlords and renters/disagreement between owners), information (information asymmetries, outcome uncertainties, incorrect beliefs), and decision-making (limited attention, social invisibility of the action, cognitive burden, loss aversion, status quo bias). Their analysis of 63 OSSs over Europe showed that the services the OSSs offer differ considerably, as do their business models. Some of them are public entities that often offer services for free, others are commercial enterprises. Their clients are usually homeowners living in relatively old buildings, and only a few of them work with social housing. Also Bagaini et al. (2022 , 3–4) analysed and categorized 29 OSS initiative around Europe and formulated five key elements on which the different OSS differed: (a) value proposition, (b) services, (c) partnership management, (d) revenue stream, and (e) shared value. Based on these dimensions, they destilled three archetypes for OSS models: They refer to them as the Facilitation Model (mostly focused on providing information to homeowners without a revenue generation model behind), the Coordination Model (also taking in a project management role with the contractors and generating revenue by fixed fees), and the Development Model (similar to the Coordination Model but with a revenue generated dynamically from the shared energy savings). Along similar lines, Pardalis et al. (2022) compared publicly and privately funded OSSs. In addition to the facilitation and the coordination model they separate the development model into “all inclusive models” (where the renovation process is fully managed by the OSS under one single contract, but energy savings are not guaranteed) and “ESCO models” (where Energy Service Companies−ESCOs−manage the whole renovation package and also guarantee energy savings). Whereas publicly funded OSSs are evaluated as providing homeowners with crucial services at the right time, privately funded OSSs struggle more with generating revenue and providing access to financing.
According to Bertoldi et al. (2021) , a key activity all of the surveyed OSSs cover is the assessment of the status quo, which is done in different ways (sometimes as a guided online self-assessment). Then, a stage of guidance toward possible measures is started, usually resulting in an individual renovation plan. In the next stage, financing is secured (either directly or indirectly, for example by supporting applications for subsidies). In the implementation stage, OSSs either manage the implementation themselves or recommend contractors who will do that. Often OSSs are involved in quality assurance of the implemented measures afterwards, sometimes certifying the result. Some OSSs also monitor the building after the energy upgrade to support the clients, often through a contract where financial benefits are shared between the OSS and the client (often in ESCO models). Finally, most OSSs also engage in campaigns for energy efficiency in buildings to increase awareness.
McGinley et al. (2020 , 355–57) formulate some key considerations for OSS design. They define OSS as offering full-service retrofitting, including initial building evaluation and thorough analysis, proposal of retrofitting solutions, retrofit execution, and quality assurance. However, they also state that little is known about characteristics and motivations of households that are drawn to OSS and how household decisions are impacted by OSSs, a research gap we aim to fill with this paper.
A number of recent EU projects have addressed the issue of OSSs in detail. In particular, the “EUROPA one stop” project (europaonestop.eu) is interesting as it created an online platform (SUNShINE−savehomesave.eu) to connect homeowners, facility managers, and contractors working on energy efficiency upgrades and provide them with easy access tools to online diagnose their renovation potential. This platform is structurally comparable with the platforms analysed in this paper and can be considered a concept following the facilitation model. However, to understand how homeowners may be affected by OSSs, it is important to take a look at decision-making processes.
In a detailed study of decision-making about energy retrofits in Norwegian households data of which was also used as a comparison for this study, Klöckner and Nayum (2017 , 1014) found that an extended Theory of Planned Behaviour ( Ajzen, 1991 , 182; Klöckner, 2013 , 1032) formed a viable theoretical framework to structure these decision processes. They were able to show that personal norms, positive attitudes, and high self-efficacy were the decisive factors for forming intentions to include energy efficiency upgrades in renovation projects. Social norms were closely related to personal norms and an important trigger of these. More distal factors were problem awareness, value orientations, perceived consumer effectiveness, and innovativeness. The most central concepts are briefly introduced in the next paragraph.
In this context, personal norms are a feeling of moral obligation to invest in better energy efficiency. Positive attitudes are the overall evaluation of the pros and cons of the decision to invest. That is how good or bad this would be, all taken into account. Self-efficacy captures how capable one feels to implement the investment, a factor that most likely will be directly affected by engaging with an OSS. Following the theoretical framework as outlined and tested by Klöckner and Nayum (2017 , 1014), an intention to invest will thus be formed: (a) if people feel that they are morally obliged to do that because wasting energy is a bad thing which is more likely; (b) if other people who are important to them support this view. Furthermore, c) a positive attitude to energy efficiency investments d) and a high self-efficacy (i.e., knowing how to implement these measures and/or who to contract to do it) also contribute. As attitudes are a combination of positive and negative beliefs about the behavioral alternatives that people choose between ( Ajzen, 1996 , 385–403), a closer look at assumed barriers and facilitators underlying those alternatives could help in understanding the decision process further, as discussed in the next section.
A number of studies analyzed facilitators of or barriers against implementing energy efficiency in a residential building from different theoretical and methodological perspectives. In his PhD thesis, Pardalis (2021 , 60) finds, based on an online survey with almost 1000 homeowners in Sweden, that the house age and time lived in a house but also energy concern trigger the decision to renovate. These factors are, again, influenced by sociodemographic factors of the occupants. Thus, structural aspects seem of importance as drivers of the retrofit decision.
Digging deeper into the decision process, Xue et al. (2022 , 5) conducted interviews with 39 professionals in the retrofit market to identify barriers to energy retrofitting from the perspective of the public sector, the private sector, and the owners who conduct the retrofit. They found financial issues as the most important barrier in all three groups. For owners who are supposed to implement energy efficiency measures, they further named lack of information, lack of creative models or cases, risks connected to the project, trust, and negative social influence as important barriers. Also, problems of reaching an agreement, time consuming processes, limited added value, and concerns about payback time were named.
Many of these aspects were also reflected in another qualitative study. Klöckner et al. (2013 , 406–408) interviewed 70 Norwegians on drivers and barriers regarding energy efficiency behaviour. They found that economic barriers (e.g., lack of investment money), motivational barriers (e.g., too much effort, loss of comfort, low perceived efficacy), structural barriers (e.g., building structure, ownership), and informational barriers (e.g., lack of trust, uncertainty, lack of specific information) were central.
Departing from practice theory in an ethnographic study of renovation projects, Judson and Maller (2014) interviewed 49 Australians involved in renovation projects and unraveled the process of renovation even more. They found that renovation projects, to a large degree, are shaped and reshaped by the existing or evolving practices people have within their buildings. Energy efficiency is traded off against other needs and meanings, negotiation between different household members occur, and focus shifts dynamically. Some parts of the home have a meaning for its inhabitants as part of their daily practices which cannot just be changed to enhance energy efficiency.
With a quantitative perspective, Klöckner and Nayum (2016 , 5) studied barriers in different stages of renovation processes in a representative sample of Norwegian households. Their findings indicate that facilitators like perceived increase in comfort, anticipated better living conditions or increased marked value were important in the early stages of decision making. Information about subsidy schemes or trustworthy information about the procedures came out as important at a later stage when planning was more advanced. Correspondingly, some barriers like building protection regulations, planning to move soon, or not owning the building were relevant already early in the process before people started even thinking about an energy retrofit, whereas barriers like too much disturbance of everyday life, contractors with a lack of competence, the need to supervise contractors, or a lack of economic resources were turned out to be relevant barriers later in the process. A particularly important barrier appeared to be the feeling that “the right point in time for a larger renovation project has not come, yet”.
In an economic modeling approach comparing expected utility theory (which assumes that decision makers chose the alternative with the best possible utility for them) and cumulative prospect theory (which assumes that decisions about investments are strongly affected by specific decision biases), Ebrahimigharehbaghi et al. (2022) found that cumulative prospect theory, which takes biases like “reference dependence” (utility changes are interpreted differently with respect to difference reference points), “loss aversion” (losses weigh higher than gains of the same size), “diminishing sensitivity” (avoiding risk for positive outcomes but taking risks for negative outcomes), and “probability weighting” (events with low probability but more extreme outcomes are overestimated) is much better equipped to predict homeowners investments in home energy efficiency in a large sample from the Netherlands than classical expected utility theory. This shows that people’s decision-making in such cases takes other aspects than economic utility into consideration to a large degree.
Studies such as the ones briefly mentioned above show that the selection of aspects that can interfere with or facilitate a decision-making process about energy retrofits is plentiful. In addition, they even have different importance depending on where in the process a decision-maker is. This makes it demanding to provide the most helpful support for decision-makers in the residential sector. It seems important to provide the right information at the right time to the right people, which underscores the need for careful targeting and timing of information provision. Flexible and interactive online counseling systems, which can take people through all stages of the process, similar OSSs, may be a way to find a good balance between resources needed and effects achieved in targeted energy counseling. Interestingly, Pardalis (2021 , 66) asked homeowners what would be most important for them with respect to OSSs, and guarantees for costs and quality, as well as having one contact and one contract and a preliminary check and counseling were on top of the list, directly addressing some of the issues identified as barriers in many of the studies above.
Summarizing what has been outlined in the introduction, energy efficiency upgrades of residential buildings are a major contributor to reaching the targets of the energy transition of the European Union. However, the private residential sector is lagging behind in this process. Renovation rates of the aging building stock are low. Even when the buildings are renovated, energy efficiency measures are not always implemented. In cases where some energy efficiency measures are included, they are often not to the standard that would be recommendable. One-stop-shops have been heavily promoted recently as a way of removing the burden of planning, financing, and implementing a deep renovation project from the individual house owners. Consequently, many such services have been implemented around Europe with differing business models, financing, and mandate. However, relatively little is known about who uses these services and what effect they have on their users. Especially, it is unknown to a large degree how interacting with a low-threshold digital OSS following a facilitation model shapes its users’ perception of barriers and facilitators of a retrofit decision, and if it affects their motivations and ambitions for this project. This research gap is addressed by the present study. More specifically, we are analysing if visitors of energy efficiency counceling websites differ in their engagement in retrofits, their energy efficiency ambitions, the profile of psychological variables, the drivers and barriers from representative samples of the population and a sample of home renovators.
Our study is, thus, contributing to the literature by providing new insights into how natural users of websites with OSS characteristics differ from the general population of homeowners on a number of psychological and socio-demographic characteristics. This helps on the one hand to identify who are the target group for such low-threshold website services, but on the other hand, we also provide an assessment if their renovation ambitions, and especially the level to which they intend to implement energy efficiency measures in these updates differs after they visited the service. Through a one-year follow-up, we can also provide an assessment of to which degree the planned measures were implemented. Taken together, the focus on primarily psychological drivers and barriers of energy efficiency investments in homes for a very specific target group in comparison to large, representative samples of homeowners paints a new, and informative picture of who the users of these websites are not only socio-demographically, but also psychologically, what they are looking for on these websites, and to which degree the websites support them in their pathway towards more energy efficient homes. Being able to run the comparisons of a relatively large sample of website users to several, large representative comparison samples which were surveyed with the same methodology in the same country over the course of 10 years provides an unique opportunity to understand the target group.
2.1 study design.
For this study, we collected responses from users of two online energy efficiency counseling websites, which have a similar structure that might be conceptualized as OSS following a facilitating model. These websites offer an analysis of the current energy standard of privately owned residential buildings (either as a guided self-assessment or based on data from the Norwegian building registry). They can also suggest a rough renovation plan and connect the homeowner to potential contractors who can implement energy efficiency measures. Moreover, they can provide information about costs, pay-off rates, subsidies (incl. information on how to apply), etc. Energismart.no is promoted by the environmental organization Friends of the Earth Norway, whereas energiportalen.no is promoted by Viken county. From January 2022 until January 2023, participants for the study were recruited from natural visitors of both websites by messages on the websites and pop-up windows, which promoted participation in our study and provided a link to the online questionnaire. We thus recruited people who visited the websites out of their own interest without promoting using the websites from our end. This sampling strategy was chosen to recruit a ecologically valid group of website users.
In the online survey, participants were then asked about their plans for retrofitting their homes, recently finished or ongoing retrofitting projects, the ambitions for energy efficiency upgrades as part of these retrofits, and psychological drivers and barriers of the decisions.
Since randomization of users of the websites was not possible, as people self-assigned to the websites, we chose a comparison group design, where we compared the means and distributions of key variables in our survey against representative homeowner data collected in 2014, 2018, and 2023 ( Klöckner and Nayum, 2016 , 2017 ; Egner and Klöckner, 2021 ; Egner et al., 2021 ; Peng and Klöckner, 2024 ) with the same survey instrument (see Table 1 for an overview of the survey samples). Because of that design, we are unable to draw causal conclusions, but we can get indications for differences between the samples (for a deeper discussion, see the limitations section below). We were also not able to survey our participants before they entered the websites. Thus, we do not know if the described differences were already there before they used the website, or which differences were caused by the website visit. It is likely that people visit such counseling websites when they already have developed an interest for the information presented there. Thus, some of the differences will have existed already pre-visit. Especially some of the drivers and barriers, but also some parts of the psychological profile might fall into that category and it is important to keep this in mind when interpreting the results. Furthermore, we do not know how long people stayed on the websites, what they read, and how much they used the information to adapt their renovation strategy, which would have given us more insights into their user experience. However, we believe that comparing the visitors to representative homeowners from different historical points in time in the same country surveyed with the same questionnaire can give us some relevant insights and at least input for generating new hypotheses.
Table 1. Overview of sample statistics in the different samples.
Differences between the samples were identified by comparing 95% confidence intervals for the means. Non-overlapping confidence intervals were interpreted as significant mean differences. Effect sizes for the differences are presented in Supplementary Appendix Table 1 .
One year after the participants answered the survey, we approached them again with a short survey asking if and which retrofitting measures had been implemented in the meantime and if not, why. The follow-up survey was sent to every participant who agreed to be contacted again.
The surveys conducted in all different studies compared here were collected through an online survey platform operated by the University of Oslo (Nettskjema.no). The questions used for the analyses presented in this paper composed only part of the questionnaires; we describe only the relevant questions below. The full survey can be found in the data repository together with the dataset. 1
In the surveys, participants were asked about their gender, age, highest education level, gross household income (in the 2023 data collection, individual gross income was recorded), the type of house they lived in, and if they owned or rented etheir dwellings. The categories of these variables can be found in Table 1 .
To capture if the participants were just finished, engaged in, or planning what we refer to as a “deep renovation” project, we asked them the following questions:
(1) Within the previous three years, were you involved in a renovation project that involved (a) substantial work on the roof like replacing all tiles, (b) replacing at least 50% of the outer walls, (c) replacing at least 50% of the window area, and/or (d) substantial work on the foundation? This definition was developed for the 2014 study in a collaboration of the researchers behind the studies and the Norwegian Energy Efficiency Agency Enova and used in the same form in all data collections since. The aim of this definition was to differentiate larger renovation projects from smaller, more cosmetic renovation projects.
(2) Are you currently involved in a renovation project according to the definition above or are you planning to engage in such a renovation project within the next three years?
However, the definition does not automatically assume that energy efficiency measures are included in the deep renovation project.
The ambition level of these renovation projects was measured by how many of the four components they (are planning to) implement, and it ranges from 1 to 4.
If participants answered “yes” to either or both of the questions presented in the previous section, they were asked if that renovation project included, includes or is planned to include (a) additional insulation of the roof of at least 10 cm, (b) adding additional insulation to the walls of at least 5 cm, (c) energy saving windows with a μ-value of 1.0 or lower, (d) at least 5 cm additional insulation to the foundation walls, (e) installation of mechanical ventilation, and/or (f) installation of balanced ventilation. Also here, the definition of these measures was agreed upon with Enova in 2014 to represent a substantial improvement in the energy standard of the respective building component. For our analyses, we counted the number of these measures that had been/were planned to be implemented in the deep renovation project. The number could thus be between 0 and 6.
Based on the Theory of Planned Behaviour ( Ajzen, 1991 , 182) extended by personal norms from the Norm-Activation Model ( Schwartz and Howard, 1981 ), four psychological variables are central to understand people’s intentions: attitudes, social norms, perceived behavioral control or behavioral efficacy, and personal norms. Each of these variables was measured by two items in the surveys, with a 7-point Likert scale from −3 to +3. Higher values indicate stronger norms, attitudes, or efficacy.
The two items to measure social norms were “People who influence my decisions think I should insulate my home” and “People who are important to me think I should retrofit my home”. The two items to measure perceived efficacy were “I know which person or company I need to contact to have my home professionally insulated” and “I know what I need to do to insulate my home”. The two items to measure personal norms were “Because of my values/principles, I feel obliged to insulate my home” and “I feel personally obliged to retrofit my home”. For each pair of items, the mean score was calculated and used in subsequent analyses.
Attitudes were measured with four semantic differentials: “Increasing the energy standard of my home would be (a) useless−useful, (b) uncomfortable−comfortable, (c) unfavorable−favorable, and (d) bad−good”. Each pair has −3 as the anchor for the negative word and +3 as the anchor for the positive word. For further analyses, the mean of the four items was calculated.
All items had been used in an identical way since the first study in 2014, as documented elsewhere ( Klöckner and Nayum, 2016 , 2017 ). In the 2023 data collection, different answering scales were used, therefore the results are not comparable and are not reported here ( Peng and Klöckner, 2024 ).
Finally, a list of potential barriers and facilitators of energy efficiency upgrades was presented in random order to the participants, asking how much they agreed with each item. The items can be found in the Supplementary Appendix . These lists were derived from a qualitative study on reasons why Norwegians upgrade or decide not to upgrade energy standards of their dwellings ( Klöckner et al., 2013 ). In the 2023 data collection, different answering scales had been used, therefore the results are not comparable and are not reported here.
The sample of counseling website users was recruited from the first week of January 2022 to the first week of January 2023. In total, 437 answers were collected. These answers were not equally distributed over the year, however, as ( Figure 1 ) shows. Whereas relatively many responses were collected in winter and early spring 2022, the interest was reduced in late spring and summer before it skyrocketed after summer 2022, as well as in winter 2023. This coincided with electricity price peaks in Norway (especially in the South) and media discussions about that topic. Thus, a first conclusion can already be that the interest in using energy efficiency counseling websites clearly follows the pattern of the energy price fluctuation and accompanying societal discussion.
Figure 1. Number of participants recruited for the counseling website user survey per week in 2022 (the line is the moving average).
Table 1 below shows the sociodemographic statistics of the sample from the counseling websites in comparison to the existing samples in detail. As can be seen, the samples are comparable on most of the dimensions. All samples contain close to 50% males and females (with the most deviation in the sample of renovators from 2014). The average age is around 50 years in all samples, with the youngest average age in the 2023 population sample and the oldest average age in the sample of the users of the websites. Education varies quite strongly, with the population sample from 2014 being the outlier with far lower education level than all other samples. Participants recruited from the counseling websites had the highest education level. The median household gross income category is the same in most samples. However, it is lower in the 2014 population sample and higher in the sample of people who answered the one-year follow-up after the visit on the counseling websites. Income categories of the 2023 sample cannot be compared, as individual gross income was recorded in that data collection. However, it can be extrapolated that the average household income would be comparable to the other samples. The proportion of people living in detached houses is particularly high in the sample of website users and the renovator sample from 2014. Also, the level of people owning their dwelling is close to 100% in these groups and a little lower in all other groups. As a conclusion, it can be said that the samples are comparable on most dimensions. Meanwhile, the website users are most similar to the people who were recruited as being in a renovation project in 2014. That is, they are more likely better educated, more likely to live in a detached house, and more likely to own their dwelling than representative samples of Norwegian households.
In the following section, we present the results of the comparison of the counseling website users with the other available samples. To do this, we examine the 95% confidence intervals as displayed in the figures for overlaps between the group of website users and the other groups. As the data is partly in separate datasets, we did not calculate formal significance tests, but a non-overlapping 95% confidence interval corresponds to an assumed significant difference between the respective groups. The numbers for the website users are always highlighted in the figures. Effect sizes are reported in Supplementary Appendix Table 1 . An overview of all results can be found in Table 2 .
Table 2. Summary of the differences between the website visitors and the representative homeowner samples from 2014, 2018, and 2023, as well as the renovator sample from 2014.
As can be seen in Figure 2 , the percentage of people who were involved in a deep renovation project is higher in the group of counseling website users than in all three population samples. The same can be said for the ongoing or planned deep renovation projects, which are also more common for people visiting the energy counseling websites. Only the group that was specifically recruited in 2014 to only contain respondents who either just had been, were still, and/or were planning a deep renovation project in the near future has higher numbers (which is not surprising). Interestingly, the number of finished and planned projects in the population sample is lower in 2023 than in 2018 and 2014, likely an effect of renovation saturation after COVID years.
Figure 2. Percentage of households per group who were, are or plan to be in a deep renovation project (see definition in the text). The columns with the bold lines are the users of the counseling websites, whiskers represent 95% confidence intervals (CI), non-overlapping CI are regarded as indicating a statistically significant difference.
Among the users of the energy counseling websites, the ambition level is higher than in any other group, both for finished, ongoing and planned projects (see Figure 3 ). This means that they are engaged in slightly larger projects, involving more of the four different potential measures (walls, windows, roof, foundation). Thus, these people probably are or plan to be involved in more comprehensive renovation projects.
Figure 3. Ambition of the deep renovation (how many different measures are included of walls, windows, roof, and basement). The columns with the bold lines are the users of the counseling websites, whiskers represent 95% confidence intervals (CI), non-overlapping CI are regarded as indicating a statistically significant difference.
When looking at the level of ambitions for integrating energy efficiency upgrades in the renovation projects, the picture is even more interesting (see Figure 4 ). Among the users of the energy counseling websites, the ambition level is substantially higher than in any other group, both for finished, ongoing, and planned projects. On a side note, even if the total percentage of people involved in deep renovation was lower in the population in 2023 than in 2014 and 2018, the degree to which energy efficiency measures are included is increasing as can be seen in Figures 2 , 4 . This may be an effect of the energy crisis in Europe in 2022.
Figure 4. Ambition of the energy retrofit as part of the renovation (how many different energy efficiency measures are included of more insulation of walls, better windows, more insulation of roof and basement, balanced ventilation system, and heat pump). The columns with the bold lines are the users of the counseling websites, whiskers represent 95% confidence intervals (CI), non-overlapping CI are regarded as indicating a statistically significant difference.
When comparing the psychological profiles of the website users to the population profiles from 2014 and 2018, it can be seen that the website users have substantially higher personal norms. This indicates that they feel more moral pressure to increase the energy efficiency of their dwellings (see Figure 5 ). They also feel stronger social norms, meaning more social pressure from their peers to engage in such energy upgrades. For attitudes, the differences are smaller. Meanwhile, the attitudes are slightly more positive than for the population samples, on the same level as for the renovators in 2014. Interestingly, despite small differences, the website users have the lowest perceived self-efficacy, especially compared to the renovators in 2014. In contrast to renovators in 2014, they feel less convinced that they know how to go about for the renovations.
Figure 5. Means in key psychological variables driving the decision to renovate and energy upgrade. The bold black line is the sample from the counseling websites, whiskers represent 95% confidence intervals (CI), non-overlapping CI are regarded as indicating a statistically significant difference.
Figures 6 , 7 show how the website users perceive facilitators and barriers of energy efficiency upgrades of their dwellings in comparison to people in the other samples. For some facilitators and barriers, differences are substantial: counseling website users expect more comfort, a cost reduction, a house that is better to live in, increased property value, and less waste of energy as a result of the renovation. They score the lowest of all samples, though, on availability of information, payback time, and availability of subsidy.
Figure 6. Means in key facilitators for an energy upgrade. The bold black line is the sample from the counseling websites, whiskers represent 95% confidence intervals (CI), non-overlapping CI are regarded as indicating a statistically significant difference.
Figure 7. Means in key barriers towards an energy upgrade. The bold black line is the sample from the counseling websites, whiskers represent 95% confidence intervals (CI), non-overlapping CI are regarded as indicating a statistically significant difference.
For the barriers, they score particularly high on perceptions of the renovation taking too much time, on lack of money, difficulty of finding information, a lack of ability to decide what to do, and a lack of capable contractors. They score lower on perceptions of it not being the right time to act.
In the one-year follow-up, the participants of the energy counseling website survey were contacted again and asked if they implemented the planned actions. 201 participants (46.0% of all participants) gave permission to be contacted a year after the initial survey was completed, and 78 (38.8% of all who were willing to be contacted) answered the short follow-up survey.
Of the 78 participants, 25 stated that they implemented the energy efficiency upgrades that they were planning to implement (32.1%). 29.2% of these changed at least 50% of the outer walls, 45.8% worked on the roof, 45.8% on the windows, and 37.5% on the foundation walls.
Of the 25 who implemented the measures, 15 added at least 5 cm insulation to the walls, 13 installed highly efficient windows (μ = 1.0 or smaller), 13 installed new mechanical ventilation, 12 insulated the roof with at least 10 cm additional insulation, 10 insulated the foundation walls with at least 5 additional cm of insulation, and 7 installed a balanced ventilation system. In addition to these measures, 11 installed heat pumps, 11 installed clean-burning wood stoves, and 5 installed solar panels on their houses. Overall, the measures taken were fairly ambitious.
The main reasons for not implementing the planned measures among the remaining participants of the follow-up were lack of economic funding (57.1%), lack of subsidies (42.9%), and that the time was not right, yet, to start the renovation, again reflecting some of the main barriers indicated in the introduction.
The study conducted with the users of two energy efficiency counseling websites had three aims: (a) finding out if users of the website differed from representative samples of Norwegian households in terms of engagement in retrofits and have higher ambitions for their renovation projects and the energy efficiency measures embedded in them, (b) finding out if they differ in the psychological profile in central variables driving the decision-making process, and (c) finding out if they perceive facilitators and barriers in this process differently than representative samples of households. Furthermore, a follow-up study aimed to find out how many participants implement their ambitions up to a year later.
For all three main questions, we find substantial differences. Whereas the website users are mostly comparable to the general population of Norwegian households regarding socio-demographics (but have a higher education level and an even smaller percentage of people renting their dwelling, which reflects well the drivers for renovation projects as identified by Pardalis, 2021 ), their psychological profile differs in two important points. Compared to all other samples (also including the renovators studied in 2014), the website users have far higher levels of personal norms−they feel they really should do something about the energy standard of their homes−and also higher social norms. Considering the importance of these two factors for intentions to implement energy renovations ( Klöckner and Nayum, 2017 , 1014), this finding is relevant. Having such high levels of these two variables makes it more likely that people will form intentions to improve the energy standard of their homes. It also indicates that people like these are a prime target group for interventions like OSSs: They are already motivated to take action because they have high energy-related moral standards, and they feel the social pressure of their peer groups.
Since we could not survey these people before they went to the website, we do not know if they had such high personal and social norm values already before the visit to the website. On the other hand, since one of the websites is promoted by the environmental organization Friends of the Earth Norway, it can be assumed that this is the case. Interestingly, users of the counseling websites had a slightly lower level of self-efficacy, especially compared to the renovators from 2014. This implies that a lower level of self-efficacy might be a barrier to implement the intentions they form, and maybe also a reason for visiting the websites. Again, this means that this group is a very attractive target group for OSS-type interventions: Alleviating the low self-efficacy is something a well-designed OSS can achieve by reducing uncertainties, providing requested information, and not the least making the link between the urge to act on the side of the homeowners and the competence the homeowners are lacking provided by skilled and trustworthy contractors. This finding is, again, very much in line with what Pardalis (2021) found as being the most important features of OSSs from the perspective of potential users.
Also in terms of facilitators and barriers analysed, counseling website users had some values substantially different from the other groups. In particular, increased expected comfort levels, expected cost reductions, and expectations of having a better house to live in after the renovation were more important facilitators for website users than for the population samples or the renovators. Expecting an increased value of the house after the renovation was also higher than for the population samples, but at the same level as for the renovators. Perceiving the current energy standards a waste was standing out again for the website users. This indicates that they enter the process with a different, more energy interested perspective (or they get convinced of that by visiting the website). Interestingly, counseling website users score lower on perceptions that information is easy to find, and that access to subsidy is available. Maybe this is also a reason why they ended up on the websites in the first place.
Among the barriers, the website users mention a lot more often the time demand for supervision and the lack of money as the main barriers. They thereby raise the need to have a facilitator (or even a manager) of the renovation process, again a function OSSs typically fill. The websites we studied are following a facilitation model, but still leave the management of the project to the homeowners. From their answers, we can conclude that many of them would actually prefer a more comprehensive model. Also here, they reiterate that they consider information hard to find, that they cannot decide what to do, and that contractors lack competence. The latter three again might be reasons for being interested in the website services in the first place. The websites seem to partly satisfy their needs, as can be seen in that a significant amount of the website visitors implement their renovation plans within a year. However, some still sit with the same lack of support and the same barriers after a year. Maybe for them, a more comprehensive OSS model with a higher degree of process management would be more appropriate. In line with the renovators from 2014, the website users are to a lesser degree unsure if the right point in time for a renovation project has come. Overall, the order of importance of renovation facilitators and barriers to a large extent reproduces what has been found in earlier studies ( Klöckner et al., 2013 ; Klöckner and Nayum, 2016 , 2017 ; Bertoldi et al., 2021 ; Xue et al., 2022 ).
Most importantly, we found that the visitors of the websites had stronger ambitions for their renovation projects, and in particular for the implementation of energy efficiency measures as part of them. Of course, we do not know if this was caused by visiting the websites or if it was already higher before they visited. Nevertheless, we can assume that there is at least some mutual influence. People with a stronger motivation, but who are unsure about how to implement, visit the websites, which then confirm their motivations and provide hands-on counseling to remove the implementation barriers. This then eventually might result in higher ambitions. This is good news for the OSS concept, even the low-threshold version of it that these websites represent ( McGinley et al., 2020 ). However, not all visitors seem to receive from these websites what they need. For the future, it might be recommendable to use low-threshold OSSs like the ones studied here following a facilitating model as an entry point but implement an (automated, maybe AI-based) detection of who would benefit from more comprehensive OSS models to channel these people to the offers that better suit their needs.
Finally, we could at least tentatively show−even if based upon only relatively few cases and subject to large sample attrition−that about 1/3 of the participants manage to implement their energy upgrade intentions. These people usually combine several measures and implement a deep renovation. For these people, the websites seem to have pushed them in the right direction without too much effort. As such, these websites have their niche as gatekeepers for a deeper process for some people, as the final push and reassurance for others.
Even if the study presented here shows some interesting results in a field where more research is needed, there are a number of limitations that are mostly caused by the design we had to choose. The biggest limitation of this study is that the participants recruited among the website users were, for obvious reasons, not randomly assigned to use the website but self-selected, and they were not surveyed before the visit on the website, a limitation that was already discussed in the methodology section. In addition, the users of the website fall into a narrower sociodemographic category than the population samples, though they seem to be rather comparable with people engaged in renovation projects six years prior to our study. Furthermore, we do not know how long people stayed on the websites, what they read, and how much they used the information to adapt their renovation strategy.
To address these limitations, studies with more controlled experimental designs would be advisable. Assigning participants randomly to different conditions (including no OSS, and different models of OSS) would give a better understanding of what the effects of the OSS are and what differences people come with in the process. Such a study could also test, whether different forms of OSS interact with different sociodemographic and psychological profiles of homeowners. In simple words, it might answer the question, which form of OSS works for which type of homeowner.
One-stop-shops have been promoted as a measure to overcome the inertia in energy efficiency retrofitting, especially in the privately owned residential building stock. Results from our study on users of two Norwegian energy efficiency counseling websites, which offer services in many ways similar to an OSS following a facilitator model, show that the users of these websites clearly differ from representative samples of Norwegian households that were surveyed with similar instruments. Their profiles were more like a sample of people who were in the beginning or in the middle of a larger renovation project, which was surveyed in 2014. However, the results also show that they are scoring substantially lower on their perceived access to information and subsidy. Regarding the psychological profiles, they were much more strongly motivated by personal and social norms than average households. Most importantly, it appears that visitors of such low-threshold websites have substantially higher ambitions for the energy upgrades, which about 1/3 of them have implemented a year after they visited the websites. Interest in online energy efficiency counseling services seems to be impacted by societal discussions about energy and/or by energy prices, as suggested by the spike in recruitment to our survey coinciding with an energy price increase during 2022 (however, this intriguing possibility will need to be confirmed in future studies). From a policy perspective, the results are interesting because they indicate that low-threshold OSSs can be gateways capturing people who are motivated for energy efficiency upgrades but not able to make the decision for several reasons. For some of them, the services that these relatively simple online platforms can offer is already enough to reduce their uncertainty and make the missing connections. For those still not satisfied after visiting these platforms, future developments should explore whether they can be automatically directed to more comprehensive forms of OSSs.
The datasets presented in this study can be found in online repositories. The names of the repository/repositories and accession number(s) can be found below: https://zenodo.org/records/10453810 .
The studies involving humans were approved by the Norwegian Agency for Shared Services in Education and Research (SIKT). The studies were conducted in accordance with the local legislation and institutional requirements. The participants provided their written informed consent to participate in this study.
CK: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Funding acquisition, Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Supervision, Validation, Visualization, Writing–original draft, Writing–review and editing. AN: Data curation, Formal analysis, Writing–original draft, Writing–review and editing. SV: Conceptualization, Funding acquisition, Writing–original draft, Writing–review and editing.
The author(s) declare financial support was received for the research, authorship, and/or publication of the article. This study has received funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under grant agreement No. 957115 as part of the ENCHANT project: www.enchant-project.eu. Data for three of the comparison groups for the analyses was extracted from two previous projects funded by the Norwegian Energy Efficiency Agency, and one comparison group was extracted from data from an ongoing project funded by the Research Council of Norway (BEHAVIOUR, Project No. 308772).
The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.
The Supplementary Material for this article can be found online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1364980/full#supplementary-material
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Keywords : energy efficiency, renovation, one-stop-shops, counseling, psychological drivers, theory of planned behaviour, personal norms, facilitators
Citation: Klöckner CA, Nayum A and Vesely S (2024) Understanding users of online energy efficiency counseling: comparison to representative samples in Norway. Front. Psychol. 15:1364980. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1364980
Received: 03 January 2024; Accepted: 18 July 2024; Published: 06 August 2024.
Reviewed by:
Copyright © 2024 Klöckner, Nayum and Vesely. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.
*Correspondence: Christian A. Klöckner, [email protected]
Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.
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Research Proposal Example 2 (DOC, 0.9MB) Research Proposal Example 3 (DOC, 55.5kB) Research Proposal Example 4 (DOC, 49.5kB) Subject specific guidance. Writing a Humanities PhD Proposal (PDF, 0.1MB) Writing a Creative Writing PhD Proposal (PDF, 0.1MB) About. About the University; Our culture and values; Academic schools; Academic dates; Press ...
A research proposal should present your idea or question and expected outcomes with clarity and definition - the what. It should also make a case for why your question is significant and what value it will bring to your discipline - the why. What it shouldn't do is answer the question - that's what your research will do.
The best place to look for a PhD proposal sample is your university. Consider asking your supervisor if they can share a good proposal from a previous student in your subject - or put you in touch with a current student you can ask. #3 Confuse the proposal with the PhD. We've covered this on the blog, but it's simple enough to include here too.
Therefore, in a good research proposal you will need to demonstrate two main things: 1. that you are capable of independent critical thinking and analysis. 2. that you are capable of communicating your ideas clearly. Applying for a PhD is like applying for a job, you are not applying for a taught programme.
When writing your PhD proposal you need to show that your PhD is worth it, achievable, and that you have the ability to do it at your chosen university. With all of that in mind, let's take a closer look at each section of a standard PhD research proposal and the overall structure. 1. Front matter.
Research proposal example/sample - PhD-level (PDF/Word) Proposal template (Fully editable) If you're working on a research proposal for a dissertation or thesis, you may also find the following useful: Research Proposal Bootcamp: Learn how to write a research proposal as efficiently and effectively as possible; 1:1 Proposal Coaching: Get ...
Make sure you can ask the critical what, who, and how questions of your research before you put pen to paper. Your research proposal should include (at least) 5 essential components : Title - provides the first taste of your research, in broad terms. Introduction - explains what you'll be researching in more detail.
Example research proposal #1: ... In a PhD, students spend 3-5 years writing a dissertation, which aims to make a significant, original contribution to current knowledge. A PhD is intended to prepare students for a career as a researcher, whether that be in academia, the public sector, or the private sector. ...
Research proposals are used to persuade potential supervisors and funders that your work is worthy of their support. These documents set out your proposed research that will result in a Doctoral thesis. They are typically between 1,500 and 3,000 words. Your PhD research proposal must passionately articulate what you want to research and why ...
A PhD Proposal A PhD proposal is an outline of your proposed project. It needs to: • Define a clear question and approach to answering it. • Highlight its originality and/or significance. • Explain how it adds to, develops (or challenges) existing literature in the field. • Persuade potential supervisors of the importance of the work, and why youare
1. Title. Your title should indicate clearly what your research question is. It needs to be simple and to the point; if the reader needs to read further into your proposal to understand your question, your working title isn't clear enough. Directly below your title, state the topic your research question relates to.
How to Write a PhD Proposal. 1. Introduction. A PhD proposal is a focused document that int roduces your PhD study idea and seeks to. convince the reader that your idea is interesting, original ...
The Profs' PhD application tutors can also provide relevant example research proposals and support to help you structure your own PhD research proposal in the most effective way. More than 40% of all of our tutors have PhDs themselves, with many having worked as university lecturers, thesis supervisors, and professors at top universities ...
Look at PhD proposal examples. Look at other PhD proposals that have been successful. Ask current students if you can look at theirs. Chelsea Janke PhD Candidate Nobody's asking you to reinvent the wheel when it comes to writing your PhD proposal - leave that for your actual thesis. For now, while you're just working out how to write a ...
1. Indicative title of the topic area. This should accurately reflect what it is that you want to study and the central issues that you are going to address. It may be useful to present this in the format of a statement (perhaps a quote) and a question, separated by a colon.
Your research proposal is a concise statement (up to 3,000 words) of the rationale for your research proposal, the research questions to be answered and how you propose to address them. We know that during the early stages of your PhD you are likely to refine your thinking and methodology in discussion with your supervisors.
References: Do not forget to specify all the references at the end of the proposal. An obvious but very important point is the format of your research proposal. Make sure that the formatting of the document is consistent throughout and that the structure is clear. If possible, it can be a good idea to give the document to your academic tutor or ...
All applicants for a PhD or MSc by Research must submit a research proposal as part of their application. Applicants must use the template form below for their research proposal. This research proposal should then be submitted online as part of your application. Please use Calibri size 11 font size and do not change the paragraph spacing ...
An Oxford PhD proposal sample, like Oxford personal statement examples, should give you an idea of how to structure and write your own PhD proposal, which is a key element of how to get into grad school. Should you pursue a master's or PhD, you should know that, with few exceptions, all graduate programs require that applicants submit a research proposal.
Research Proposal Example Here is a research proposal sample template (with examples) from the University of Rochester Medical Center. 4 The sections in all research proposals are essentially the same although different terminology and other specific sections may be used depending on the subject. Structure of a Research Proposal
As a guide, research proposals should be around 2,000-3,000 words and contain: A title - this is just tentative and can be revised over the course of your research. An abstract - a concise statement of your intended research. Context - a brief overview of the general area of study within which your proposed research falls, summarising the ...
Abstract. This is a succinct summary of your research proposal that will present a condensed outline, enabling the reader to get a very quick overview of your proposed project, lines of inquiry and possible outcomes. An abstract is often written last, after you have written the proposal and are able to summarise it effectively.
This means that the proposal is less about the robustness of your proposed research design and more about showing that you have. 1. Critical thinking skills. 2. An adequate grasp of the existing literature and know how your research will contribute to it. 3. Clear direction and objectives.
The thing about the PhD research proposal is that you have to encapsulate everything that you want to accomplish, communicate in a concise way what you want to do, the resources that it will require, and finally you have to convince the reader of the viability and necessity of the project. It isn't easy to know where to begin with something ...
Table 1 below shows the sociodemographic statistics of the sample from the counseling websites in comparison to the existing samples in detail. As can be seen, the samples are comparable on most of the dimensions. All samples contain close to 50% males and females (with the most deviation in the sample of renovators from 2014).