computer hardware essay introduction

• Network infrastructure

computer hardware

• Rahul Awati
• Linda Rosencrance

What is computer hardware?

Computer hardware is a collective term used to describe any of the physical components of an analog or digital computer . The term hardware distinguishes the tangible aspects of a computing device from software , which consists of written, machine-readable instructions or programs that tell physical components what to do and when to execute the instructions.

Hardware and software are complementary. A computing device can function efficiently and produce useful output only when both hardware and software work together appropriately.

Computer hardware can be categorized as being either internal or external components . Generally, internal hardware components are those necessary for the proper functioning of the computer, while external hardware components are attached to the computer to add or enhance functionality.

What are internal computer hardware components?

Internal components collectively process or store the instructions delivered by the program or operating system ( OS ). These include the following:

• Motherboard . This is a printed circuit board that holds the central processing unit ( CPU ) and other essential internal hardware and functions as the central hub that all other hardware components run through.
• CPU . The CPU is the brain of the computer that processes and executes digital instructions from various programs; its clock speed determines the computer's performance and efficiency in processing data.
• RAM . RAM -- or dynamic RAM -- is temporary memory storage that makes information immediately accessible to programs; RAM is volatile memory, so stored data is cleared when the computer powers off.
• Hard drive . Hard disk drives are physical storage devices that store both permanent and temporary data in different formats, including programs, OSes, device files, photos, etc.
• Solid-state drive ( SSD ). SSDs are solid-state storage devices based on NAND flash memory technology; SSDs are non-volatile, so they can safely store data even when the computer is powered down.
• Optical drive . Optical drives typically reside in an on-device drive bay; they enable the computer to read and interact with nonmagnetic external media, such as compact disc read-only memory or digital video discs.
• Heat sink. This is a passive piece of hardware that draws heat away from components to regulate/reduce their temperature to help ensure they continue to function properly. Typically, a heat sink is installed directly atop the CPU, which produces the most heat among internal components.
• Graphics processing unit . This chip-based device processes graphical data and often functions as an extension to the main CPU.
• Network interface card ( NIC ). A NIC is a circuit board or chip that enables the computer to connect to a network; also known as a network adapter or local area network adapter , it typically supports connection to an Ethernet network.

Other computing components, such as USB ports, power supplies, transistors and chips, are also types of internal hardware.

This computer hardware chart below illustrates what typical internal computer hardware components look like.

What are external hardware components?

External hardware components, also called peripheral components , are those items that are often externally connected to the computer to control either input or output functions. These hardware devices are designed to either provide instructions to the software (input) or render results from its execution (output).

Common input hardware components include the following:

• Mouse . A mouse is a hand-held pointing device that moves a cursor around a computer screen and enables interaction with objects on the screen. It may be wired or wireless.
• Keyboard . A keyboard is an input device featuring a standard QWERTY keyset that enables users to input text, numbers or special characters.
• Microphone . A microphone is a device that translates sound waves into electrical signals and supports computer-based audio communications.
• Camera. A camera captures visual images and streams them to the computer or through a computer to a network device.
• Touchpad . A touchpad is an input device, external or built into a laptop, used to control the pointer on a display screen. It is typically an alternative to an external mouse.
• USB flash drive . A USB flash drive is an external, removable storage device that uses flash memory and interfaces with a computer through a USB port.
• Memory card . A memory card is a type of portable external storage media, such as a CompactFlash card , used to store media or data files.

Other input hardware components include joysticks, styluses and scanners .

Examples of output hardware components include the following:

• Monitor . A monitor is an output device similar to a TV screen that displays information, documents or images generated by the computing device.
• Printer . Printers render electronic data from a computer into printed material.
• Speaker. A speaker is an external audio output device that connects to a computer to generate a sound output.
• Headphones, earphones, earbuds. Similar to speakers, these devices provide audio output that's audible only to a single listener.

Hardware vs. software

Hardware refers to the computer's tangible components or delivery systems that store and run the written instructions provided by the software. The software is the intangible part of the device that lets the user interact with the hardware and command it to perform specific tasks. Computer software includes the following:

• OS and related utilities;
• programs that control certain computer functions; and
• applications that usually perform operations on user-supplied data.

On mobile devices and laptop computers, virtual keyboards are also considered software because they're not physical.

Since the software and hardware depend on each other to enable a computer to produce useful output, the software must be designed to work properly with the hardware.

The presence of malicious software, or malware , such as viruses , Trojan horses , spyware and worms , can have a huge effect on computer programs and a system's OS. Hardware is not affected by malware, though.

However, malware can affect the system in other ways. For example, it can consume a large portion of the computer's memory or even replicate itself to fill the device's hard drive. This slows down the computer and may also prevent legitimate programs from running. Malware can also prevent users from accessing the files in the computer's hardware storage.

What is hardware virtualization?

Hardware virtualization is the abstraction of physical computing resources from the software that uses those resources. Simply put, when software is used to create virtual versions of hardware instead of using physical, tangible hardware components for some computing function, it is known as hardware virtualization .

Sometimes referred to as platform or server virtualization , hardware virtualization is executed on a particular hardware platform by host software. It requires a virtual machine manager called a hypervisor that creates virtual versions of internal hardware. This enables the hardware resources of one physical machine to be shared among OSes and applications and to be used more efficiently.

In cloud computing , hardware virtualization is often associated with infrastructure as a service ( IaaS ), a delivery model that provides hardware resources over high-speed internet. A cloud service provider ( CSP ), such as Amazon Web Services or Microsoft Azure , hosts all the hardware components that are traditionally present in an on-premises data center, including servers, storage and networking hardware, as well the software that makes virtualization possible.

This makes IaaS and CSPs different from hardware as a service ( HaaS ) provider that hosts only hardware but not software. Typically, an IaaS provider also supplies a range of services to accompany infrastructure components, such as the following:

• load balancing

Some CSPs also provide storage resiliency services, such as automated backup , replication and disaster recovery .

What is hardware as a service?

While it's common for individuals or businesses to purchase computer hardware and then periodically replace or upgrade it, they can also lease physical and virtual hardware from a service provider. The provider then becomes responsible for keeping hardware up to date, including its various physical components and the software running on it.

This is known as the HaaS model .

The biggest advantage of HaaS is that it reduces the costs of hardware purchases and maintenance, enabling organizations to shift from a capital expense budget to a generally less expensive operating expense budget. Also, since most HaaS offerings are based on a pay-as-you-go model, it makes it easier for organizations to control costs, while still having access to the hardware they need for their operational and business continuity.

In HaaS, physical components that belong to a managed service provider ( MSP ) are installed at a customer's site. A service-level agreement ( SLA ) defines the responsibilities of both parties.

The customer may either pay a monthly fee for using the MSP's hardware, or its use may be incorporated into the MSP's fee structure for installing, monitoring and maintaining the hardware. Either way, if the hardware breaks down or becomes outdated, the MSP is responsible for repairing or replacing it.

Depending upon the terms of the SLA, decommissioning hardware may include wiping proprietary data, physically destroying hard drives and certifying that old equipment has been recycled legally.

Continue Reading About computer hardware

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Computer Hardware

Computer hardware includes the physical parts of a computer, such as a case, central processing unit (CPU), random access memory (RAM), monitor, and mouse which processes the input according to the set of instructions provided to it by the user and gives the desired output.

The computer has mainly has two major components:

In this article, we only discuss computer hardware.

What is Computer Hardware?

Computer hardware is a physical device of computers that we can see and touch. For e.g. Monitor , Central Processing Unit , Mouse, Joystick , etc. Using these devices, we can control computer operations like input and output .

Computer Hardware Parts

These hardware components are further divided into the following categories, which are:

• Input Devices
• Output Devices
• Storage Devices
• Internal Components

1. Input Devices

Input devices are those devices with the help of which the user interacts with the computer. Or, In other words, with the help of input devices, the user enters the data or information into the computer. This information or data is accepted by the input devices and converted into a computer-acceptable format, which is further sent to the computer system for processing.

Now we discuss some input devices:

• Keyboard: It is the most common and main input device for computers. The data is inputted by typing on the keyboard. It consists of 104 keys in total. It contains numeric keys, alphabet keys, and different function keys as well. Earlier, it was connected to the computer via cable, now as technology has advanced, you can connect a keyboard using Bluetooth.
• Mouse: A mouse is a kind of pointing device which is rolled over to control the cursor on the screen and it has functional keys like left, middle, and right buttons. Using these functional keys, on by the click of which an object is selected or to open a file by just a click of a mouse. It also consists of a sensor inside which notifies its speed to the computer and according to which the cursor is moved on the screen.
• Scanner: As the name suggests, it scans images, documents, etc., and converts them into digital form and that can be further edited and used. It works just like a Xerox machine. 
• Track Ball: It is a device much like an upside-down mouse. It does not use much space for movement like a mouse. As the trackball remains stationary and the user moves the ball in various directions, it affects the screen movements directly.
• Light Pen: It is a light-sensitive device and it is touched to the CRT screen where it can detect, a raster on the screen as it passes by and, with the help of this user can draw anything like lines, figures, or any objects. 
• Microphone: It is a kind of voice input system that can be attached to a computer system to record sounds. It converts human speech or voice into electrical signals . This electrical signal is processed by the computer and the word is recognized.  
• Optical Character Reader: It is used to detect alphanumeric characters that are written or printed on paper using a low-frequency light source. This light is absorbed by the dark areas and reflected by the light areas, now this reflected light is received by the photocells. It is like a scanner.
• Bar Code Reader: It is used to read bar codes and convert them into electric pulse which will further processed by the computer. Here, the barcode is data that is coded into white and black lines(or light and dark lines).

2. Output Devices

These are the devices that are used to display the output of any task given to the computer in human-readable form. 

Now we discuss some output devices:

• Monitor: The monitor is the main output device. It is also called VDU(visual display unit) and it looks like a TV screen. The Monitor displays the information from the computer. It is used to display text, video, images, etc.
• Printer: A printer is an output device that transfers data from the computer in a printed format by using text or images on paper. There are both colored and black & white printers. Further, there are also different types of printers, like Laser Printer, Dot-matrix printers, and Inkjet printers.
• Plotter: It is similar to a printer but potters are large in size. A plotter is used to generate large drawings, architectural blueprints, etc. on paper and these are high-quality images and drawings and large in size.
• Speakers: It is a very common output device and it gives sound as an output. Speaker is generally used to play music or anything having sound.

3. Storage Devices

There are some devices that are used for storage purposes and are known as secondary storage devices. Some of them were discussed below:

1. CD (Compact disc): A CD is circular in shape and made up of thin platted glass and plastic polycarbonate material. It has a storage capacity of 600 MB to 700 MB of data. It has a standard size of 12 cm with a hole in the center of about 1.5 cm and 1.2 mm in thickness. There are basically 3 types of CDs, which are:

• CD-ROM (CD – Read Only Memory): Contents of this type of CD cannot be erased by the user. Only the publisher is allowed to access the data imprinted on this CD. CD-ROM is basically used for commercial purposes like for a music album or any application package by a software company.
• CD-R (CD-Recordable): In this, content or data can be stored once. After that, they can be read many times but the data or content cannot be rewritten or erased. (Kind of one-time use)
• CD-RW(CD-Rewritable): As the name suggests, this type of CD is used to rewrite the content or erase previous content and again write new content many times.

2. DVD (Digital Video/Versatile Disc): A DVD is the same as a CD but with some more features. A DVD comes in single and dual-layer formats. It has much greater storage capacity in comparison to CD. The storage capacity of a DVD with one-sided single layer is – 4.7 GB, one-sided double layer – 8.5 GB, double-sided single layer – 9.4 GB, and double-sided double layer – 17 GB. There are also some types in DVDs, which are :

• DVD-ROM: In this type, the contents of the DVD cannot be written on or erased by the user. DVD ROM is used for applications and database for distributing them in large amounts.
• DVD-R / DVD+R: DVD-R (DVD minus R) and DVD+R (DVD plus R) are two different kinds of discs and they are once recordable format. Also, they have no difference virtually.
• DVD-RW / DVD+RW: This is a kind of rewritable disc and it allows up to 1,000 rewrites.
• DVD-RAM: DVD RAM is accessed like a hard disk. It provides high data security and storage capacity. This is a kind of rewritable disc and it allows up to 1,00,000 rewrites.

3. Hard Disk: An hard disk is a non-volatile storage device that uses its read/write heads to store digital data on a magnetic surface of a rigid plate. It is generally 3.5 inches in size for desktops and 2.5 inches in size for laptops. A hard disk can be classified further into 3 types, which are:

• Internal Hard Disk: It has a common storage capacity stated as GB or TB. A system case or cabinet is the place where it is located. It can perform faster operations and its storage is fixed. It is mainly used to store large data files and programs .
• Internal Cartridges: The Internal hard disk can’t be removed from the system cabinet easily. To resolve this problem Internal Cartridges are introduced. So, Internal cartridges are easy to remove CDs. It has a storage capacity of 2 GB to 160 GB. It is used as an alternative to an internal hard disk.
• Hard Disk Packs: It is used by organizations such as banks, and government sector organizations to store large amounts of data. It has a storage capacity of a range of PB( Peta Bytes).

Hardware Components

Some important hardware devices known as the internal components are discussed below: 

1. CPU (Central Processing Unit)

The CPU is also known as the heart of the computer. It consists of three units, generally known as the control unit, Arithmetic Logical Unit (ALU) , and the memory unit . Below is the block diagram of the CPU is given:

As shown in the diagram input is given to the CPU through input devices. This input goes to memory and the control unit gets instructions from memory. The control unit now decides what to do with the input or instructions and transfers it to ALU. Now, ALU performs various operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, logical operations, etc. After that, the final result gets stored in memory and finally passed to output devices to give the output. So, this is how the CPU works.

2. Motherboard

It is the main circuit board inside a computer and it contains most of the electronic components together. All the components of the computer are directly or indirectly connected to the motherboard . It includes RAM slots, controllers, system chipsets, etc. 

3. RAM (Random Access Memory)

It is also known as temporary or volatile memory. It holds the program and data, which are currently in process or processing. All the data is erased as soon as the computer is turned off or in case of a power failure. Data stored in this memory can be changed. There are two types of RAM:-

• SRAM (Static RAM): SRAM basically consists of a flip-flop using a transistor or Mosfet (MOS). It is fast and has less access time. In this refreshing circuits are not required. But it is costly and requires more space. For e.g. cache memory.
• DRAM (Dynamic RAM): DRAM consists of capacitors and the data is stored in the form of capacitors. Capacitors charge when data is 1 and don’t charge if data is 0. It requires refreshing circuits, as leakage of current in the capacitor can occur, so they need to be refreshed to the data. It is slower and has a higher access time. It is cheaper in comparison with SRAM . For e.g. Main memory.

4. Video Graphics Array Port

A video input commonly used on computer monitors is called a video graphics array (VGA) port. Verifying that there isn’t a loose connection, a damaged cable, or a broken display is one step in troubleshooting a VGA port. Compressed air can also be sprayed inside the VGA port by a computer expert to make sure it’s dust-free.

5. Power Supply

All of a computer system’s parts are powered by a power source. Typically, a power cord is used to connect a computer tower to an electrical outlet. By turning off the computer, unplugging and separating the power supply cord, or trying a different cord or socket, a technician can diagnose the power supply.

6. Cooling Fan

A computer’s system to prevent overheating uses cooling fans. To aid customers who use their computers intensively, such as when streaming video or playing games, many computers contain more than one cooling fan. If a user detects their computer overheating, a computer expert might need to repair the cooling fan. The blades may be examined for any damage and cleared of any foreign objects. A technician’s standard method of troubleshooting may involve replacing computer fans.

7. Hard Drive

On a computer system, files, programs, and other types of information are stored on hard drives, which are data storage devices. They utilise hard drives, which are magnetically coated discs used to store digital versions of information. A computer technician can suspect a corrupt hard disk when a hard drive dies.

Relationship Between Computer Hardware and Software

• Both the Hardware and software are mutually dependent on each other. Each should function properly so that the computer produces an output.
• Software utilization can not be done without supporting of the hardware.
• Relevant software should be loaded into the hardware to get the latest software.
• Hardware is a one-time expense while software is not.
• Software development is very expensive while hardware cant be developed if in use once.
• Many software applications and their sub-applications can be loaded on hardware to run different jobs.
• The software acts as an interface between the user and the hardware.

FAQs on Computer hardware

Q.1 why is computer hardware important.

The term hardware for a computer system refers to the actual, physical tools and components that support crucial operations including input, processing (internal storage, computation, and control), output, secondary storage (for data and programs), and communication.

Q.2 How does SCCM handle hardware inventory?

SCCM’s hardware inventory gathers data on hardware components utilized throughout your IT infrastructure. You must enable a few parameters before you can begin collecting hardware inventory data. Once the hardware inventory settings have been enabled, it is simple to store inventory data in the SCCM database.

Q.3 What is the basic use of hardware?

Hardware describes the physical parts of the computer or its delivery systems for the software’s written instructions to be stored and executed.

Q.4 How do you make a computer run faster?

Consider giving your computer extra RAM if you’ve previously removed debris from the interior and uninstalled any superfluous files or apps. Your CPU will normally operate more efficiently with extra memory, which could improve performance.

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Analog computers

Mainframe computer.

• Supercomputer
• Minicomputer
• Microcomputer
• Laptop computer
• Embedded processors
• Central processing unit
• Main memory
• Secondary memory
• Input devices
• Output devices
• Communication devices
• Peripheral interfaces
• Fabrication
• Transistor size
• Power consumption
• Quantum computing
• Molecular computing
• Role of operating systems
• Multiuser systems
• Thin systems
• Reactive systems
• Operating system design approaches
• Local area networks
• Wide area networks
• Business and personal software
• Scientific and engineering software
• Internet and collaborative software
• Games and entertainment
• Analog calculators: from Napier’s logarithms to the slide rule
• Digital calculators: from the Calculating Clock to the Arithmometer
• The Jacquard loom
• The Difference Engine
• The Analytical Engine
• Ada Lovelace, the first programmer
• Herman Hollerith’s census tabulator
• Other early business machine companies
• Vannevar Bush’s Differential Analyzer
• Howard Aiken’s digital calculators
• The Turing machine
• The Atanasoff-Berry Computer
• The first computer network
• Konrad Zuse
• Bigger brains
• Von Neumann’s “Preliminary Discussion”
• The first stored-program machines
• Machine language
• Zuse’s Plankalkül
• Interpreters
• Grace Murray Hopper
• IBM develops FORTRAN
• Control programs
• The IBM 360
• Time-sharing from Project MAC to UNIX
• Minicomputers
• Integrated circuits
• The Intel 4004
• Early computer enthusiasts
• The hobby market expands
• From Star Trek to Microsoft
• Application software
• Commodore and Tandy enter the field
• The graphical user interface
• The IBM Personal Computer
• Microsoft’s Windows operating system
• Workstation computers
• Embedded systems
• Handheld digital devices
• The Internet
• Social networking
• Ubiquitous computing

What is a computer?

Who invented the computer, what can computers do, are computers conscious, what is the impact of computer artificial intelligence (ai) on society.

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• University of Rhode Island - College of Arts and Sciences - Department of Computer Science and Statistics - History of Computers
• LiveScience - History of Computers: A Brief Timeline
• Computer History Museum - Timeline of Computer history
• Engineering LibreTexts - What is a computer?
• Computer Hope - What is a Computer?
• computer - Children's Encyclopedia (Ages 8-11)
• computer - Student Encyclopedia (Ages 11 and up)
• Table Of Contents

A computer is a machine that can store and process information . Most computers rely on a binary system , which uses two variables, 0 and 1, to complete tasks such as storing data, calculating algorithms, and displaying information. Computers come in many different shapes and sizes, from handheld smartphones to supercomputers weighing more than 300 tons.

Many people throughout history are credited with developing early prototypes that led to the modern computer. During World War II, physicist John Mauchly , engineer J. Presper Eckert, Jr. , and their colleagues at the University of Pennsylvania designed the first programmable general-purpose electronic digital computer, the Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer (ENIAC).

What is the most powerful computer in the world?

As of November 2021 the most powerful computer in the world is the Japanese supercomputer Fugaku, developed by RIKEN and Fujitsu . It has been used to model COVID-19 simulations.

How do programming languages work?

Popular modern programming languages , such as JavaScript and Python, work through multiple forms of programming paradigms. Functional programming, which uses mathematical functions to give outputs based on data input, is one of the more common ways code is used to provide instructions for a computer.

The most powerful computers can perform extremely complex tasks, such as simulating nuclear weapon experiments and predicting the development of climate change . The development of quantum computers , machines that can handle a large number of calculations through quantum parallelism (derived from superposition ), would be able to do even more-complex tasks.

A computer’s ability to gain consciousness is a widely debated topic. Some argue that consciousness depends on self-awareness and the ability to think , which means that computers are conscious because they recognize their environment and can process data. Others believe that human consciousness can never be replicated by physical processes. Read one researcher’s perspective.

Computer artificial intelligence's impact on society is widely debated. Many argue that AI improves the quality of everyday life by doing routine and even complicated tasks better than humans can, making life simpler, safer, and more efficient. Others argue AI poses dangerous privacy risks, exacerbates racism by standardizing people, and costs workers their jobs leading to greater unemployment. For more on the debate over artificial intelligence, visit ProCon.org .

computer , device for processing, storing, and displaying information.

Computer once meant a person who did computations, but now the term almost universally refers to automated electronic machinery . The first section of this article focuses on modern digital electronic computers and their design, constituent parts, and applications. The second section covers the history of computing. For details on computer architecture , software , and theory, see computer science .

Computing basics

The first computers were used primarily for numerical calculations. However, as any information can be numerically encoded, people soon realized that computers are capable of general-purpose information processing . Their capacity to handle large amounts of data has extended the range and accuracy of weather forecasting . Their speed has allowed them to make decisions about routing telephone connections through a network and to control mechanical systems such as automobiles, nuclear reactors, and robotic surgical tools. They are also cheap enough to be embedded in everyday appliances and to make clothes dryers and rice cookers “smart.” Computers have allowed us to pose and answer questions that were difficult to pursue in the past. These questions might be about DNA sequences in genes, patterns of activity in a consumer market, or all the uses of a word in texts that have been stored in a database . Increasingly, computers can also learn and adapt as they operate by using processes such as machine learning .

Computers also have limitations, some of which are theoretical. For example, there are undecidable propositions whose truth cannot be determined within a given set of rules, such as the logical structure of a computer. Because no universal algorithmic method can exist to identify such propositions, a computer asked to obtain the truth of such a proposition will (unless forcibly interrupted) continue indefinitely—a condition known as the “ halting problem .” ( See Turing machine .) Other limitations reflect current technology . For example, although computers have progressed greatly in terms of processing data and using artificial intelligence algorithms , they are limited by their incapacity to think in a more holistic fashion. Computers may imitate humans—quite effectively, even—but imitation may not replace the human element in social interaction. Ethical concerns also limit computers, because computers rely on data, rather than a moral compass or human conscience , to make decisions.

Analog computers use continuous physical magnitudes to represent quantitative information. At first they represented quantities with mechanical components ( see differential analyzer and integrator ), but after World War II voltages were used; by the 1960s digital computers had largely replaced them. Nonetheless, analog computers, and some hybrid digital-analog systems, continued in use through the 1960s in tasks such as aircraft and spaceflight simulation.

One advantage of analog computation is that it may be relatively simple to design and build an analog computer to solve a single problem. Another advantage is that analog computers can frequently represent and solve a problem in “real time”; that is, the computation proceeds at the same rate as the system being modeled by it. Their main disadvantages are that analog representations are limited in precision—typically a few decimal places but fewer in complex mechanisms—and general-purpose devices are expensive and not easily programmed.

Digital computers

In contrast to analog computers, digital computers represent information in discrete form, generally as sequences of 0s and 1s ( binary digits, or bits). The modern era of digital computers began in the late 1930s and early 1940s in the United States , Britain, and Germany . The first devices used switches operated by electromagnets (relays). Their programs were stored on punched paper tape or cards, and they had limited internal data storage. For historical developments, see the section Invention of the modern computer .

During the 1950s and ’60s, Unisys (maker of the UNIVAC computer), International Business Machines Corporation (IBM), and other companies made large, expensive computers of increasing power . They were used by major corporations and government research laboratories, typically as the sole computer in the organization. In 1959 the IBM 1401 computer rented for $8,000 per month (early IBM machines were almost always leased rather than sold), and in 1964 the largest IBM S/360 computer cost several million dollars.

These computers came to be called mainframes, though the term did not become common until smaller computers were built. Mainframe computers were characterized by having (for their time) large storage capabilities, fast components, and powerful computational abilities. They were highly reliable, and, because they frequently served vital needs in an organization, they were sometimes designed with redundant components that let them survive partial failures. Because they were complex systems, they were operated by a staff of systems programmers, who alone had access to the computer. Other users submitted “batch jobs” to be run one at a time on the mainframe.

Such systems remain important today, though they are no longer the sole, or even primary, central computing resource of an organization, which will typically have hundreds or thousands of personal computers (PCs). Mainframes now provide high-capacity data storage for Internet servers, or, through time-sharing techniques, they allow hundreds or thousands of users to run programs simultaneously. Because of their current roles, these computers are now called servers rather than mainframes.

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Unit 7. Evolution of computers

Topic B: Computer hardware and software

Click play on the following audio player to listen along as you read this section.

Computer Hardware Basics

Hardware – any physical device or equipment used in or with a computer system (anything you can see and touch).

External hardware

• External hardware devices (peripherals) – any hardware device that is located outside the computer.
• Input device – a piece of hardware device which is used to enter information to a computer for processing.

• Output device – a piece of hardware device that receives information from a computer.
• Examples: monitor, printer, scanner, speaker, display screen (tablet, smartphone …), projector, head phone, etc.

Internal hardware

• Internal hardware devices (or internal hardware components) – any piece of hardware device that is located inside the computer.
• Examples: CPU, hard disk drive, ROM, RAM, etc.

Computer Software Basics

Computer software.

• Software – a set of instructions or programs that tells a computer what to do or how to perform a specific task (computer software runs on hardware).
• Main types of software – systems software and application software.

Application software

• Application software – a computer program that provides users with tools to accomplish a specific task.
• Examples of application software: word processing, spreadsheets, presentation, database management, Internet browsers, email programs, media players, accounting, pronunciation, translation, desktop publishing, enterprise, etc.

System Software

• Main functions of system software – allocating system resources, managing storage space, storing and retrieval of files, providing security, etc.
• Main types of systems software – operating system, device driver, utility software, programming software, etc.

Operating system (OS) – a software that controls and coordinates the computer hardware devices and runs other software and applications on a computer. It is the main part of system software and a computer will not function without it.

• Main functions of an operating system – booting the computer, managing system resources (CPU, memory, storage devices, printer, etc.), managing files, handling input and output, executing and providing services for application software, etc.
• Examples of operating system: Microsoft Windows, Apple iOS, Android OS, macOS, Linux, etc.

Device driver – a software program that is designed to control a particular hardware device that is attached to a computer.

• The main purpose of device driver – it acts as a translator between the hardware device and operating systems or applications that use it.
• It instructs computer on how to communicate with the device by translating the operating system’s instructions into a language that a device can understand in order to perform the necessary task.
• Examples of device driver: printer driver, display driver, USB driver, sound card driver, motherboard driver, ROM driver, etc.

Utility software – a type of system software that helps set up, analyze, configure, strengthen, maintain a computer and performs a very specific task (e.g. antivirus software, backup software, memory tester, screen saver, etc.).

any physical device or equipment used in or with a computer system (anything you can see and touch).

any hardware device that is located outside the computer.

a piece of hardware device which is used to enter information to a computer for processing.

a piece of hardware device that receives information from a computer.

any piece of hardware device that is located inside the computer.

a set of instructions or programs that tells a computer what to do or how to perform a specific task (computer software runs on hardware).

a computer program that provides users with tools to accomplish a specific task.

it is designed to run a computer's hardware and application software, and make the computer system available for use. It serves as the interface between hardware, application software, and the user.

a software that controls and coordinates the computer hardware devices and runs other software and applications on a computer. It is the main part of system software and a computer will not function without it.

a software program that is designed to control a particular hardware device that is attached to a computer.

a type of system software that helps set up, analyze, configure, strengthen, maintain a computer and performs a very specific task (e.g. antivirus software, backup software, memory tester, screen saver, etc.).

Key Concepts of Computer Studies Copyright © 2020 by Meizhong Wang is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Essay on Computer and its Uses for School Students and Children

500+ words essay on computer.

In this essay on computer, we are going to discuss some useful things about computers. The modern-day computer has become an important part of our daily life. Also, their usage has increased much fold during the last decade. Nowadays, they use the computer in every office whether private or government. Mankind is using computers for over many decades now. Also, they are used in many fields like agriculture, designing, machinery making, defense and many more. Above all, they have revolutionized the whole world.

History of Computers

It is very difficult to find the exact origin of computers. But according to some experts computer exists at the time of world war-II. Also, at that time they were used for keeping data. But, it was for only government use and not for public use. Above all, in the beginning, the computer was a very large and heavy machine.

Working of a Computer 

The computer runs on a three-step cycle namely input, process, and output. Also, the computer follows this cycle in every process it was asked to do. In simple words, the process can be explained in this way. The data which we feed into the computer is input, the work CPU do is process and the result which the computer give is output.

Components and Types of Computer

The simple computer basically consists of CPU, monitor, mouse, and keyboard . Also, there are hundreds of other computer parts that can be attached to it. These other parts include a printer, laser pen, scanner , etc.

The computer is categorized into many different types like supercomputers, mainframes, personal computers (desktop), PDAs, laptop, etc. The mobile phone is also a type of computer because it fulfills all the criteria of being a computer.

Get the huge list of more than 500 Essay Topics and Ideas

Uses of Computer in Various Fields

As the usage of computer increased it became a necessity for almost every field to use computers for their operations. Also, they have made working and sorting things easier. Below we are mentioning some of the important fields that use a computer in their daily operation.

Medical Field

They use computers to diagnose diseases, run tests and for finding the cure for deadly diseases . Also, they are able to find a cure for many diseases because of computers.

Whether it’s scientific research, space research or any social research computers help in all of them. Also, due to them, we are able to keep a check on the environment , space, and society. Space research helped us to explore the galaxies. While scientific research has helped us to locate resources and various other useful resources from the earth.

For any country, his defence is most important for the safety and security of its people. Also, computer in this field helps the country’s security agencies to detect a threat which can be harmful in the future. Above all the defense industry use them to keep surveillance on our enemy.

Threats from a Computer

Computers have become a necessity also, they have become a threat too. This is due to hackers who steal your private data and leak them on internet. Also, anyone can access this data. Apart from that, there are other threats like viruses, spams, bug and many other problems.

The computer is a very important machine that has become a useful part of our life. Also, the computers have twin-faces on one side it’s a boon and on the other side, it’s a bane. Its uses completely depend upon you. Apart from that, a day in the future will come when human civilization won’t be able to survive without computers as we depend on them too much. Till now it is a great discovery of mankind that has helped in saving thousands and millions of lives.

Frequently Asked Questions on Computer

Q.1  What is a computer?

A.1 A computer is an electronic device or machine that makes our work easier. Also, they help us in many ways.

Q.2 Mention various fields where computers are used?

A.2  Computers are majorly used in defense, medicine, and for research purposes.

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INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER HARDWARE

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Computer Hardware Components and Functions Essay

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Hardware is the physical components of a computer, while the software is a collection of programs and related data to perform the computers desired function. The software can be edited while the hardware can not. There are four main groups of hardware; Those concerned with input, the central processing unit (CPU), storage hardware components and those concerned with output.

Input hardware devices are things such as keyboards, mice, scanners or an analogue to digital converter and are used to provide data and control signals to an information processing system.

Storage hardware can be either volatile or non-volatile memory. Volatile memory, or Random Access Memory (RAM), stores data while it is being manipulated and is synonymous with the working memory of the human mind.

This is the information which is lost on computer shutdown. For example, this word document I’m typing at the moment is stored on RAM until I save it. When I save this document (as I have just done) It is now stored on a form of non-volatile memory; the hard drive. Other forms of non-volatile memory include the read-only memory (ROM) where programs integral to the computer’s function are stored and storage devices such as CDs. ROM hardware also includes expansion cards such as graphics cards.

The Central Processing Unit (CPU) executes a sequence of stored information, or, programs.

Output Hardware is any hardware which is used to communicate the results of the computer to the outside world. Monitors, printers and speakers are all forms of output hardware.

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Essay on Computer

Students are often asked to write an essay on Computer in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on Computer

Introduction.

A computer is a device that performs tasks by following a set of instructions called programs. It can store, retrieve, and process data quickly and accurately.

A computer has two main parts: hardware and software. Hardware includes physical parts like the monitor, keyboard, and CPU. Software includes the programs that tell the hardware what to do.

Computers are used in many areas, like education, business, and entertainment. They help us to learn, communicate, and have fun.

In conclusion, computers are powerful tools that make our lives easier. They are a vital part of modern life.

250 Words Essay on Computer

Computers, the revolutionary devices of the 21st century, have dramatically transformed the way we live, work, and communicate. They are no longer just tools for processing data, but have evolved into multi-functional machines that can perform a plethora of tasks with astonishing speed and accuracy.

Evolution and Impact

The evolution of computers from enormous, room-sized machines to compact, handheld devices is a testament to human ingenuity and technological advancements. Today, computers are integral to various sectors such as healthcare, education, business, and entertainment. They have revolutionized information processing, enabling rapid, accurate data analysis and decision-making.

Computers and the Internet

The advent of the Internet has exponentially increased the power and reach of computers. It has facilitated global connectivity, fostering new forms of communication and collaboration. From online education to telemedicine, the Internet has expanded the possibilities of what computers can do.

Artificial Intelligence

The latest frontier in computer science is artificial intelligence (AI). AI-powered computers can learn, adapt, and make decisions, opening up unprecedented possibilities. However, this also raises ethical and societal concerns, necessitating responsible use and regulation.

In conclusion, computers are transformative tools that have reshaped society. As they continue to evolve, they will undoubtedly unlock new potentials and challenges. As responsible users, it is incumbent upon us to harness their power for good while mitigating potential risks.

500 Words Essay on Computer

Introduction to computers, history of computers.

The concept of computers dates back to the invention of the abacus, a simple calculating tool. The evolution of computers, however, took a significant turn in the 19th century with Charles Babbage’s Analytical Engine, often referred to as the “first computer”. The 20th century witnessed the development of electronic computers, and the advent of microprocessors in the 1970s made personal computers accessible to the masses.

Components of a Computer

A computer comprises hardware and software. Hardware refers to the physical components such as the central processing unit (CPU), memory, and input/output devices. The CPU, often called the brain of the computer, performs all the calculations and processing. Software, on the other hand, includes the operating systems, applications, and programs that instruct the hardware to perform tasks.

Role of Computers in Modern Society

The internet and computers, future of computers.

The future of computers is promising, with advancements in quantum computing, artificial intelligence, and machine learning. Quantum computing, with its potential to perform complex calculations at incredible speeds, could revolutionize various sectors, including cryptography and drug discovery. Meanwhile, the integration of AI and machine learning into computers is leading towards more intelligent, autonomous systems that can learn and adapt.

If you’re looking for more, here are essays on other interesting topics:

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The Elbrus-2: a Soviet-era high performance computer

By alex bochannek | may 08, 2013.

In November of 2012, an event to celebrate the 25th anniversary of the SPARC microprocessor event was held at the Computer History Museum. The star-studded panel of technologists associated with Sun Microsystems’ SPARC processor drew a large crowd, many of them Sun alumni themselves. One of the audience members turned out to be Steven Muchnick, who was part of the original SPARC team.

Elbrus-2 CPU boards donated by Steven Muchnick

Events like this are often an opportunity for people to informally connect with the Museum’s staff and this event was no different. Steven Muchnick was interested in donating three circuit boards from a 1980s Soviet-era high performance computer, the Elbrus-2. When he contacted the Museum’s registrar, William Harnack, William knew that I would be quite excited to add another extraordinary object connected with Soviet computing history to the collection. I was familiar with the Elbrus line of high-performance computers; I had the opportunity to interview Boris Babayan, who was one of the principal designers of the machines, in 2009 and again for an oral history project in 2012. An article on that last visit and the 2011 SoRuCom conference were recently published in the IEEE Annals of the History of Computing .

How had Steven Muchnick come into the possession of these circuit boards? He had visited Moscow as part of a Sun Microsystems delegation in 1992. As the Soviet Union opened up under Gorbatchev, many of the very talented scientists and engineers were of great interest to European and American companies. Muchnick requested the boards directly from Boris Babayan who gladly offered them to the American visitor.

Lebedev Institute of Precision Mechanics and Computer Technology, Moscow

The Elbrus series of machines was designed at the Institute of Precision Mechanics and Computer Technology (ITMVT) in Moscow, a prestigious institute under the Soviet Academy of Sciences. Established in 1948, it came to prominence as the leading research center for high-performance computing under Soviet computing pioneer Sergey Lebedev, in whose honor the institute was later renamed. Lebedev had led the design of the MESM computer in Kiev in the late 1940s before designing the larger BESM in Moscow in the early 1950s.

Many different computer architectures flourished in the Soviet Union in the 1950s and 1960s. The range of incompatible systems, combined with Soviet industry’s difficulties with advanced manufacturing techniques, resulted in an evaluation of the future path to modernize computing (by grandham). In 1967, the decision was made at the highest government levels of the Soviet Union to coordinate development and production of a new series of compatible machines with its COMECON partners. This series of machines – the Unified Series or ES – was to be based on the IBM System/360. The success of IBM’s architecture and the wide range of available software appeared to make this decision a logical choice; however, many researchers, scientists, and engineers disagreed with this decision (and do to this day) and would have favored a new, domestic series of compatible machines instead.

Many different computer architectures flourished in the Soviet Union in the 1950s and 1960s. The range of incompatible systems, combined with Soviet industry’s difficulties with advanced manufacturing techniques, resulted in an evaluation of the future path to modernize computing (by grandham). In 1967, the decision was made at the highest government levels of the Soviet Union to coordinate development and production of a new series of compatible machines with its COMECON partners. This series of machines – the Unified Series or ES – was to be based on the IBM System/360 . The success of IBM’s architecture and the wide range of available software appeared to make this decision a logical choice; however, many researchers, scientists, and engineers disagreed with this decision (and do to this day) and would have favored a new, domestic series of compatible machines instead.

Lebedev’s standing in the field and the close military ties of ITMVT allowed high-performance computing to stay on a path of independence. The BESM-6 was particularly successful in non-military applications and over 350 of the machines were built for almost twenty years starting in the late 1960s.

The role of supercomputers in the American scientific and military establishment continued to grow by the 1970s, a situation seen with much concern in the Soviet Union. Particularly the introduction of computers like the Seymour Cray-designed CDC 7600 led to serious discussions about the future of high-performance computing. Two competing proposals emerged at ITMVT: Vladimir Melnikov proposed a compatible BESM-10, Vsevolod Burtsev favored a new machine, the Elbrus, named after the mountain in the Caucasus.

As Lebedev stepped down from his role at the institute in 1973, an internal power struggle for leadership shaped the future of Soviet high-performance computing. Unable to gather enough support, Melnikov departed and Burtsev’s appointment as Lebedev’s successor guaranteed the selection of the Elbrus architecture.

The design of the Elbrus systems was heavily influenced by its intended applications: anti-ballistic missile defense, atomic energy, weapons design, and other military-industrial uses. The combination of real-time control and high-performance computing is an unusual one; the resulting requirements were high performance, high reliability, and ease of programming. Experience at ITMVT with designing high-reliability military systems like the 5E92B influenced some of the implementation.

Video: CHM oral history excerpt of Boris Babayan, Elbrus architect

But Burtsev, Babayan, and the rest of the Elbrus team also examined then current computer architectures from the West and found the Burroughs B 5000 to be most compelling. The Elbrus architecture featured multiple CPUs, multiprogramming and multiprocessing, hardware tagging, and support for high-level languages. A new programming language, El-76, was devised for all levels of programming.

The initial Elbrus implementation, the Elbrus-1, was running acceptance testing by 1979. A small number of Elbrus-1 machines were produced and many reports of reliability problems tarnished the project. A dual-processor Elbrus-1 took years to deliver to an installation in Estonia and was finally operational in 1986.

Elbrus-2 high-performance computer

The Elbrus-2, the successor design to the Elbrus-1, was on the drawing board in 1978, right after the Elbrus-1 prototype was running. The Elbrus-2 was clearly what was originally envisioned as a high-performance computer. The switch from slower TTL technology to high-speed ECL logic and the introduction of semiconductor memory achieved that goal. The Elbrus-2 had a fivefold clock speed advantage over its predecessor, but was effectively ten times as fast due to some new instructions that accelerated scientific computations in particular. In comparison to a contemporary Western supercomputer, the Cray X-MP, the Elbrus-2’s performance on a mix of applications had been measured to be on par when adjusted for clock speed differences (the Cray was clocked five times faster.)

But the problems typical in Soviet high-tech manufacturing plagued the Elbrus-2 as well. The prototypes were running in 1984 and full series production didn’t start until 1987. Many of the components available were unreliable and it took a switch in technology in 1989 to improve the issue. The Elbrus-2 was manufactured until 1992 at a total quantity of about 200 processors. However, many of these systems were very large and by 1989, five 10-processor systems made up half of all Elbrus-2 processors manufactured at that point. As was intended, most of the systems were installed for military applications and BESM-6 systems continued to operate for civilian uses. Considering the low expectations of reliability of Soviet technology, the BESM-6 turned out to be a reliable workhorse for many universities and other non-military uses.

Elbrus-2 console

Just as they had done when the Elbrus-1 design work was coming to an end, the team around Boris Babayan embarked on a completely new design, the Elbrus-3, in 1985. Inspired by the FPS AP-120B array processor and the Multiflow Trace , the design of the Elbrus-3 used a very-long instruction word (VLIW) architecture, similar to the Cydrome Cydra-5 , which was developed at the same time, both without knowledge of each other.

Elbrus-2 CPU circuit board close-up. This circuit board formed part of the control unit.

The early 1990s were a period of major change in the Soviet Union following the perestroika movement and the eventual collapse of the state. The team at ITMVT saw orders for its machines dwindle. Work on a microprocessor inspired by the Elbrus-2 (the El-90) laid the groundwork for a VLIW microprocessor implementing the Elbrus-3 architecture. This El-95 design was the basis of negotiations with several foreign fims. In 1990, the work was shown to Bill Joy, co-founder of Sun Microsystems, who saw the potential for a collaboration. Several meetings followed, including the visit that brought Steven Muchnick to Moscow. By 1992, contracts had been signed for Babayan’s team to form the Moscow Center of SPARC Technologies and to develop a SPARC-compatible processor based on the Elbrus-3 design.

During the mid-1990s, Babayan’s team started to work on the much-rumored E2k processor, a CPU that could execute both Elbrus VLIW and Intel x86 code. Technology news sites were caught up in the excitement of a possible Russian competitor to Intel, when the newly formed Elbrus International announced the E2k in 1999. While the late 1990s were a period of exuberance, the early 2000s were more sobering. In 2004, Intel absorbed the team working on the E2k and Boris Babayan, the Lenin Prize winner born in Baku, Azerbaijan, became an Intel Fellow.

About The Author

Alex Bochannek joined the staff of the Computer History Museum in 2007 after a decade as a volunteer with the Museum. He currently holds the position of Curator and Senior Manager.

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[email protected]

Campus: Moscow Classes: Microelectronics I, Microelectronics I Lab, Electromagnetic Theory, Electromagnetics Lab, Signals and Systems I, Signals and Systems I Lab, Introduction to Electronic Packaging, Introduction to VLSI Design, Semiconductor Devices, Introduction to Microelectronics Fabrication, Senior Design I, Senior Design II Areas of Expertise:  Semiconductor device and IC design, Micro/nanofabrication and electronic packaging, ML/AI in VLSI design and manufacturing

Bhaskar Rimal, Ph.D., P.E.

Affiliate professor.

Jannsen 235

[email protected]

Campus: Moscow Courses: Network Security, IoT Security Areas of Expertise: Internet of Things (IoT) Security, Cyber-Physical Systems (CPS) Security, Wireless Communications Security, Hardware Security, Quantum Machine Learning

Robert Rinker, Ph.D.

Associate professor; associate chair of computer science.

Janssen 235

208-885-7378

[email protected]

Campus: Moscow Courses: Computer Science I, Computer Organization and Architecture, System Software, Advanced Computer Architecture, Real-Time Operating Systems Areas of Expertise: computer architecture, reconfigurable computing, embedded systems

Dakota Roberson, Ph.D., P.E.

208-533-8120

[email protected]

Campus: Idaho Falls Areas of Expertise: Power System Control (Wide-area damping using active power modulation such as HVDC, energy storage, etc., Detection and correction of latency in closed-loop controllers, Variable loop gain strategies, Coupling of distributed systems, Energy storage controller technology for smoothing, arbitrage, AGC, etc.), Statistical Signal Processing (Estimation/Detection Theory, Cramer-Rao Lower Bound, Saddlepoint Approximations and other high-order approximation techniques)

Ting-Yen Shih, Ph.D., P.E.

Gauss-Johnson 214

208-885-0953

[email protected]

Campus: Moscow Courses: Electromagnetic Theory, Electromagnetics Laboratory, Antennas and RF circuits for 5G mobile communications, Antenna Principles and Design, Antenna Theory, Advanced Topics in Electromagnetics Areas of Expertise: Electrically-small antennas, Ultra-Wideband Array Antennas, Machine Learning Applications in RF Circuits and Antennas, RF/Microwave/mmWave Circuits, Non-Reciprocal Devices, High Power Microwaves, Biomedical Applications of RF/Microwaves, In-Band Full-Duplex Radios

Dennis Sullivan, Ph.D., P.E.

Gauss-Johnson 215

208-885-5926

[email protected]

Campus: Moscow Areas of Expertise: Electromagnetics and nonlinear optics, quantum Semiconductor simulation

Ata Zadehgol, Ph.D., P.E.

Buchanan 208

208-885-9000

[email protected]

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Electrical and Computer Engineering, Staff

Michael mcmenamy, electronics specialist.

Gauss-Johnson 001

208-885-7307

[email protected]

Electrical and Computer Engineering, Emeriti Faculty

• Touraj Assefi
• David Atkinson
• Suat Utku Ay
• Gregory Donohoe
• David Egolf
• Aicha Elshabini
• Joseph Feeley
• Axel Krings
• James Peterson
• Richard Wall
• Richard Wells
• Jeffrey Young